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\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 \sbasedon0 \snext103 \styrsid14354460 Normal Indent;}{\s104\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 
\sbasedon0 \snext0 \styrsid14354460 Note Heading;}{\s105\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f2\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 \sbasedon0 \snext105 \styrsid14354460 Plain Text;}{
\s106\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 \sbasedon0 \snext0 \styrsid14354460 Salutation;}{
\s107\qj \li4252\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin4252\itap0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 \sbasedon0 \snext107 \styrsid14354460 Signature;}{
\s108\qc \li0\ri0\sa60\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 \sbasedon0 \snext108 \styrsid14354460 Subtitle;}{\*
\ts109\tsrowd\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tscellcfpat16\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext109 \styrsid14354460 Table 3D effects 1;}{\*\ts109\tsrowd\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf15 
\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\cf12 \tscfirstrow Table 3D effects 1;}{\*\ts109\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf8 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tsclastrow Table 3D effects 1;}{\*\ts109\tsrowd\tsbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf15 
\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscfirstcol Table 3D effects 1;}{\*\ts109\tsrowd\tsbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf8 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tsclastcol Table 3D effects 1;}{\*
\ts109\tsrowd\tsbrdrl\brdrnil\tsbrdrb\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscnecell Table 3D effects 1;}{\*\ts109\tsrowd\tsbrdrb\brdrnil\tsbrdrr\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscnwcell Table 3D effects 1;}{\*
\ts109\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrnil\tsbrdrl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscsecell Table 3D effects 1;}{\*\ts109\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrnil\tsbrdrr\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf9 \tscswcell Table 3D effects 1;}{\*
\ts110\tsrowd\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscbandsh1\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tscellcfpat16\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext110 \styrsid14354460 Table 3D effects 2;}{\*\ts110\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b 
\tscfirstrow Table 3D effects 2;}{\*\ts110\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrnil\tsbrdrb\brdrnil\tsbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf15 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscfirstcol Table 3D effects 2;}{\*\ts110\tsrowd\tsbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf8 
\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tsclastcol Table 3D effects 2;}{\*\ts110\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf15 \tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf8 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscbandhorzodd Table 3D effects 2;}{\*
\ts110\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscswcell Table 3D effects 2;}{\*
\ts111\tsrowd\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscbandsh1\tscbandsv1\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext111 \styrsid14354460 Table 3D effects 3;}{\*\ts111\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b 
\tscfirstrow Table 3D effects 3;}{\*\ts111\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrnil\tsbrdrb\brdrnil\tsbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf15 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscfirstcol Table 3D effects 3;}{\*\ts111\tsrowd\tsbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf8 
\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tsclastcol Table 3D effects 3;}{\*\ts111\tsrowd\tscellcfpat16\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000 \cf0 \tscbandvertodd Table 3D effects 3;}{\*\ts111\tsrowd\tscellcfpat16\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct5000 \cf0 \tscbandverteven 
Table 3D effects 3;}{\*\ts111\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf15 \tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf8 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscbandhorzodd Table 3D effects 3;}{\*\ts111\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscswcell 
Table 3D effects 3;}{\*\ts112\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 
\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext112 \styrsid14354460 Table Classic 1;}{\*\ts112\tsrowd\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \i \tscfirstrow Table Classic 1;}{\*
\ts112\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf0 \tsclastrow Table Classic 1;}{\*\ts112\tsrowd\tsbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscfirstcol Table Classic 1;}{\*
\ts112\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\i0 \tscnecell Table Classic 1;}{\*\ts112\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscswcell Table Classic 1;}{\*\ts113\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 
\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext113 \styrsid14354460 Table Classic 2;}{\*\ts113\tsrowd\tscellcfpat12\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf8 
\tscfirstrow Table Classic 2;}{\*\ts113\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tsclastrow Table Classic 2;}{\*\ts113\tsrowd\tscellcfpat16\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscfirstcol 
Table Classic 2;}{\*\ts113\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscnecell Table Classic 2;}{\*\ts113\tsrowd\tscellcfpat12\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscnwcell Table Classic 2;}{\*
\ts113\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf9 \tscswcell Table Classic 2;}{\*\ts114\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tscellcfpat16\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\cf9\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext114 \styrsid14354460 Table Classic 3;}{\*
\ts114\tsrowd\tscellcfpat9\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\i\cf8 \tscfirstrow Table Classic 3;}{\*\ts114\tsrowd\tscellcfpat8\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 
\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf9 \tsclastrow Table Classic 3;}{\*\ts114\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\cf1 \tscfirstcol Table Classic 3;}{\*\ts115\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb
\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext115 \styrsid14354460 Table Classic 4;}{\*\ts115\tsrowd\tscellcfpat9\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct5000\tsbrdrb
\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\i\cf8 \tscfirstrow Table Classic 4;}{\*\ts115\tsrowd\tscellcfpat1\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct5000\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf9 \tsclastrow 
Table Classic 4;}{\*\ts115\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscfirstcol Table Classic 4;}{\*\ts115\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscnwcell Table Classic 4;}{\*\ts115\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf9 
\tscswcell Table Classic 4;}{\*\ts116\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf3 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tscellcfpat10\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\cf8\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext116 \styrsid14354460 Table Colorful 1;}{\*
\ts116\tsrowd\tscellcfpat1\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\i \tscfirstrow Table Colorful 1;}{\*\ts116\tsrowd\tscellcfpat9\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\i \tscfirstcol 
Table Colorful 1;}{\*\ts116\tsrowd\tscellcfpat1\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscnwcell Table Colorful 1;}{\*\ts116\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\i0 \tscswcell Table Colorful 1;}{\*\ts117\tsrowd\trbrdrb
\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tscellcfpat7\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct2000\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext117 \styrsid14354460 Table Colorful 2;}{\*
\ts117\tsrowd\tscellcfpat13\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\i\cf8 \tscfirstrow Table Colorful 2;}{\*\ts117\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\i \tscfirstcol Table Colorful 2;}{\*
\ts117\tsrowd\tscellcfpat16\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tsclastcol Table Colorful 2;}{\*\ts117\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\i0 \tscswcell Table Colorful 2;}{\*\ts118\tsrowd\trbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw45\brdrcf1 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw45\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw45\brdrcf1 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw45\brdrcf1 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf16 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tscellcfpat10\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct2500\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext118 \styrsid14354460 Table Colorful 3;}{\*
\ts118\tsrowd\tscellcfpat10\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscfirstrow Table Colorful 3;}{\*\ts118\tsrowd\tscellcfpat10\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw90\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscfirstcol Table Colorful 3;}{\*\ts118\tsrowd\tscellcfpat1\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\cf8 \tscnwcell Table Colorful 3;}{\*\ts119\tsrowd\trbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscbandsv1\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 
\b\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext119 \styrsid14354460 Table Columns 1;}{\*\ts119\tsrowd\tsbrdrb\brdrdb\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b0 \tscfirstrow Table Columns 1;}{\*
\ts119\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b0 \tsclastrow Table Columns 1;}{\*\ts119\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b0 \tscfirstcol Table Columns 1;}{\*\ts119\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b0 \tsclastcol 
Table Columns 1;}{\*\ts119\tsrowd\tscellcfpat1\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct2500 \cf0 \tscbandvertodd Table Columns 1;}{\*\ts119\tsrowd\tscellcfpat7\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct2500 \cf0 \tscbandverteven Table Columns 1;}{\*
\ts119\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscnecell Table Columns 1;}{\*\ts119\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscswcell Table Columns 1;}{\*
\ts120\tsrowd\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscbandsv1\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \b\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext120 \styrsid14354460 Table Columns 2;}{\*
\ts120\tsrowd\tscellcfpat9\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf8 \tscfirstrow Table Columns 2;}{\*\ts120\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b0 \tsclastrow Table Columns 2;}{\*
\ts120\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b0\cf1 \tscfirstcol Table Columns 2;}{\*\ts120\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b0 \tsclastcol Table Columns 2;}{\*\ts120\tsrowd\tscellcfpat1\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct3000 \cf0 \tscbandvertodd 
Table Columns 2;}{\*\ts120\tsrowd\tscellcfpat4\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct2500 \cf0 \tscbandverteven Table Columns 2;}{\*\ts120\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscnecell Table Columns 2;}{\*\ts120\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b 
\tscswcell Table Columns 2;}{\*\ts121\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf9 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf9 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf9 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf9 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf9 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscbandsv1\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 
\b\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext121 \styrsid14354460 Table Columns 3;}{\*\ts121\tsrowd\tscellcfpat9\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf8 \tscfirstrow Table Columns 3;}{\*
\ts121\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf9 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b0 \tsclastrow Table Columns 3;}{\*\ts121\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b0 \tscfirstcol Table Columns 3;}{\*\ts121\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil 
\b0 \tsclastcol Table Columns 3;}{\*\ts121\tsrowd\tscellcfpat16\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000 \cf0 \tscbandvertodd Table Columns 3;}{\*\ts121\tsrowd\tscellcfpat1\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct1000 \cf0 \tscbandverteven Table Columns 3;}{\*
\ts121\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscnecell Table Columns 3;}{\*
\ts122\tsrowd\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscbandsv1\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext122 \styrsid14354460 Table Columns 4;}{\*
\ts122\tsrowd\tscellcfpat1\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf8 \tscfirstrow Table Columns 4;}{\*\ts122\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tsclastrow Table Columns 4;}{\*
\ts122\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tsclastcol Table Columns 4;}{\*\ts122\tsrowd\tscellcfpat10\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct5000 \cf0 \tscbandvertodd Table Columns 4;}{\*\ts122\tsrowd\tscellcfpat1\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct1000 \cf0 
\tscbandverteven Table Columns 4;}{\*\ts123\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf15 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf15 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf15 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf15 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf16 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscbandsv1\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 
\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext123 \styrsid14354460 Table Columns 5;}{\*\ts123\tsrowd\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf15 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\i \tscfirstrow Table Columns 5;}{\*
\ts123\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf15 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tsclastrow Table Columns 5;}{\*\ts123\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscfirstcol Table Columns 5;}{\*\ts123\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil 
\b \tsclastcol Table Columns 5;}{\*\ts123\tsrowd\tscellcfpat16\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000 \cf0 \tscbandvertodd Table Columns 5;}{\*\ts123\tsrowd \cf0 \tscbandverteven Table Columns 5;}{\*\ts124\tsrowd\trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw45\brdrcf8 \trbrdrv
\brdrs\brdrw45\brdrcf8 \trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscbandsh1\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext124 \styrsid14354460 Table Contemporary;}{\*
\ts124\tsrowd\tscellcfpat1\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct2000\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\cf0 \tscfirstrow Table Contemporary;}{\*\ts124\tsrowd\tscellcfpat1\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct500\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf0 \tscbandhorzodd 
Table Contemporary;}{\*\ts124\tsrowd\tscellcfpat1\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct2000\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf0 \tscbandhorzeven Table Contemporary;}{\*\ts125\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrdb\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrl\brdrdb\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb
\brdrdb\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrr\brdrdb\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 
\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext125 \styrsid14354460 Table Elegant;}{\*\ts125\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \caps\cf0 \tscfirstrow Table Elegant;}{\*\ts126\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 
\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext126 \styrsid14354460 Table Grid;}{\*\ts127\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 
\trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext127 \styrsid14354460 Table Grid 1;}{\*\ts127\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \i \tsclastrow 
Table Grid 1;}{\*\ts127\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \i \tsclastcol Table Grid 1;}{\*\ts128\tsrowd\trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 
\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext128 \styrsid14354460 Table Grid 2;}{\*\ts128\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscfirstrow Table Grid 2;}{\*\ts128\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 
\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tsclastrow Table Grid 2;}{\*\ts128\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscfirstcol Table Grid 2;}{\*\ts128\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tsclastcol Table Grid 2;}{\*\ts129\tsrowd\trbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 
\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext129 \styrsid14354460 Table Grid 3;}{\*\ts129\tsrowd\tscellcfpat7\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct3000\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscfirstrow 
Table Grid 3;}{\*\ts129\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tsclastrow Table Grid 3;}{\*\ts129\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tsclastcol Table Grid 3;}{\*\ts130\tsrowd\trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext130 \styrsid14354460 Table Grid 4;}{\*\ts130\tsrowd\tscellcfpat7\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct3000\tsbrdrb
\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf0 \tscfirstrow Table Grid 4;}{\*\ts130\tsrowd\tscellcfpat7\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct3000\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\cf0 \tsclastrow Table Grid 4;}{\*
\ts130\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\cf0 \tsclastcol Table Grid 4;}{\*\ts131\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 
\trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext131 \styrsid14354460 Table Grid 5;}{\*\ts131\tsrowd\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 
\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscfirstrow Table Grid 5;}{\*\ts131\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tsclastrow Table Grid 5;}{\*\ts131\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tsclastcol Table Grid 5;}{\*\ts131\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl
\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscnwcell Table Grid 5;}{\*\ts132\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 
\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext132 \styrsid14354460 Table Grid 6;}{\*\ts132\tsrowd\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscfirstrow Table Grid 6;}{\*\ts132\tsrowd\tsbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf0 \tsclastrow Table Grid 6;}{\*\ts132\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscfirstcol Table Grid 6;}{\*\ts132\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscnwcell 
Table Grid 6;}{\*\ts133\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 
\b\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext133 \styrsid14354460 Table Grid 7;}{\*\ts133\tsrowd\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b0 \tscfirstrow Table Grid 7;}{\*\ts133\tsrowd\tsbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b0 \tsclastrow Table Grid 7;}{\*\ts133\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b0 \tscfirstcol Table Grid 7;}{\*\ts133\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b0 \tsclastcol 
Table Grid 7;}{\*\ts133\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscnwcell Table Grid 7;}{\*\ts134\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf9 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf9 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf9 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf9 \trbrdrh
\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf9 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf9 \trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext134 \styrsid14354460 Table Grid 8;}{\*
\ts134\tsrowd\tscellcfpat9\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\cf8 \tscfirstrow Table Grid 8;}{\*\ts134\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\cf0 \tsclastrow Table Grid 8;}{\*
\ts134\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\cf0 \tsclastcol Table Grid 8;}{\*\ts135\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf10 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscbandsh1\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 
\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext135 \styrsid14354460 Table List 1;}{\*\ts135\tsrowd\tscellcfpat16\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\i\cf13 
\tscfirstrow Table List 1;}{\*\ts135\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tsclastrow Table List 1;}{\*\ts135\tsrowd\tscellcfpat16\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf0 \tscbandhorzodd 
Table List 1;}{\*\ts135\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf0 \tscbandhorzeven Table List 1;}{\*\ts135\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscswcell Table List 1;}{\*\ts136\tsrowd\trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf15 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscbandsh2\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 
\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext136 \styrsid14354460 Table List 2;}{\*\ts136\tsrowd\tscellcfpat10\tscellcbpat11\tscellpct7500\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\cf8 
\tscfirstrow Table List 2;}{\*\ts136\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tsclastrow Table List 2;}{\*\ts136\tsrowd\tscellcfpat4\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct2000\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf0 \tscbandhorzodd 
Table List 2;}{\*\ts136\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf0 \tscbandhorzeven Table List 2;}{\*\ts136\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscswcell Table List 2;}{\*\ts137\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb
\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext137 \styrsid14354460 Table List 3;}{\*\ts137\tsrowd\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 
\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\cf9 \tscfirstrow Table List 3;}{\*\ts137\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tsclastrow Table List 3;}{\*\ts137\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \i\cf9 \tscswcell 
Table List 3;}{\*\ts138\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 
\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext138 \styrsid14354460 Table List 4;}{\*\ts138\tsrowd\tscellcfpat15\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\cf8 
\tscfirstrow Table List 4;}{\*\ts139\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 
\trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 
\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext139 \styrsid14354460 Table List 5;}{\*\ts139\tsrowd\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscfirstrow Table List 5;}{\*
\ts139\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscfirstcol Table List 5;}{\*\ts140\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 
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\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext140 \styrsid14354460 Table List 6;}{\*\ts140\tsrowd\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 
\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscfirstrow Table List 6;}{\*\ts140\tsrowd\tsbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscfirstcol Table List 6;}{\*
\ts140\tsrowd\tscellcfpat1\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct2500\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscbandhorzodd Table List 6;}{\*\ts141\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf11 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf11 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf11 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf11 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscbandsh1\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext141 \styrsid14354460 Table List 7;}{\*\ts141\tsrowd\tscellcfpat16\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrb
\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf11 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscfirstrow Table List 7;}{\*\ts141\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf11 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tsclastrow Table List 7;}{\*
\ts141\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscfirstcol Table List 7;}{\*\ts141\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tsclastcol Table List 7;}{\*\ts141\tsrowd\tscellcfpat1\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct2000\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil 
\cf0 \tscbandhorzodd Table List 7;}{\*\ts141\tsrowd\tscellcfpat7\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct2500\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscbandhorzeven Table List 7;}{\*\ts142\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb
\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 
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\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext142 \styrsid14354460 Table List 8;}{\*\ts142\tsrowd\tscellcfpat7\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct10000\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\i 
\tscfirstrow Table List 8;}{\*\ts142\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tsclastrow Table List 8;}{\*\ts142\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscfirstcol Table List 8;}{\*
\ts142\tsrowd\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tsclastcol Table List 8;}{\*\ts142\tsrowd\tscellcfpat7\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct2500\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \cf0 \tscbandhorzodd Table List 8;}{\*
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\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 \sbasedon0 \snext0 \ssemihidden \styrsid14354460 table of authorities;}{\s144\qj \fi-440\li440\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin440\itap0 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 \sbasedon0 \snext0 \ssemihidden \styrsid14354460 table of figures;}{\*\ts145\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \trbrdrr
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\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext145 \styrsid14354460 Table Professional;}{\*
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\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext146 \styrsid14354460 Table Simple 1;}{\*\ts146\tsrowd\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf11 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscfirstrow Table Simple 1;}{\*\ts146\tsrowd\tsbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf11 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tsclastrow Table Simple 1;}{\*
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\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscfirstrow Table Simple 2;}{\*\ts147\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b\cf0 \tsclastrow Table Simple 2;}{\*\ts147\tsrowd\tsbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 
\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscfirstcol Table Simple 2;}{\*\ts147\tsrowd\tsbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tsclastcol Table Simple 2;}{\*\ts147\tsrowd\tsbrdrl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil 
\b \tscnecell Table Simple 2;}{\*\ts147\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \b \tscswcell Table Simple 2;}{\*\ts148\tsrowd\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \trftsWidthB3\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tscellwidthfts0\tsvertalt\tsbrdrt\tsbrdrl\tsbrdrb\tsbrdrr\tsbrdrdgl\tsbrdrdgr\tsbrdrh\tsbrdrv 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext148 \styrsid14354460 Table Simple 3;}{\*
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\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext149 \styrsid14354460 Table Subtle 1;}{\*\ts149\tsrowd\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw15\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrb
\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscfirstrow Table Subtle 1;}{\*\ts149\tsrowd\tscellcfpat12\tscellcbpat8\tscellpct2500\tsbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tsclastrow Table Subtle 1;}{\*
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\f56\fs20\lang1024\langfe1024\cgrid\langnp1024\langfenp1024 \sbasedon11 \snext150 \styrsid14354460 Table Subtle 2;}{\*\ts150\tsrowd\tsbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brdrcf1 \tsbrdrdgl\brdrnil\tsbrdrdgr\brdrnil \tscfirstrow Table Subtle 2;}{\*\ts150\tsrowd\tsbrdrt
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\'02\'00);}{\levelnumbers\'01;}\fi-360\li360\jclisttab\tx360\lin360 }{\listlevel\levelnfc4\levelnfcn4\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698713\'02\'01.;}{\levelnumbers\'01;}\fi-360\li1080
\jclisttab\tx1080\lin1080 }{\listlevel\levelnfc2\levelnfcn2\leveljc2\leveljcn2\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698715\'02\'02.;}{\levelnumbers\'01;}\fi-180\li1800\jclisttab\tx1800\lin1800 }{\listlevel
\levelnfc0\levelnfcn0\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698703\'02\'03.;}{\levelnumbers\'01;}\fi-360\li2520\jclisttab\tx2520\lin2520 }{\listlevel\levelnfc4\levelnfcn4\leveljc0\leveljcn0
\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698713\'02\'04.;}{\levelnumbers\'01;}\fi-360\li3240\jclisttab\tx3240\lin3240 }{\listlevel\levelnfc2\levelnfcn2\leveljc2\leveljcn2\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360
\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698715\'02\'05.;}{\levelnumbers\'01;}\fi-180\li3960\jclisttab\tx3960\lin3960 }{\listlevel\levelnfc0\levelnfcn0\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext
\leveltemplateid67698703\'02\'06.;}{\levelnumbers\'01;}\fi-360\li4680\jclisttab\tx4680\lin4680 }{\listlevel\levelnfc4\levelnfcn4\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698713
\'02\'07.;}{\levelnumbers\'01;}\fi-360\li5400\jclisttab\tx5400\lin5400 }{\listlevel\levelnfc2\levelnfcn2\leveljc2\leveljcn2\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698715\'02\'08.;}{\levelnumbers\'01;}
\fi-180\li6120\jclisttab\tx6120\lin6120 }{\listname ;}\listid647588346}{\list\listtemplateid-49362318\listhybrid{\listlevel\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698691
\'01o;}{\levelnumbers;}\f2\fbias0 \fi-360\li360\jclisttab\tx360\lin360 }{\listlevel\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698691\'01o;}{\levelnumbers;}\f2\fbias0 
\fi-360\li1080\jclisttab\tx1080\lin1080 }{\listlevel\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat3\levelspace0\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid-1152740118\'01\u-3913 ?;}{\levelnumbers;}\loch\af3\hich\af3\dbch\af0\fbias0 
\fi-360\li1800\jclisttab\tx1800\lin1800 }{\listlevel\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698689\'01\u-3913 ?;}{\levelnumbers;}\f3\fbias0 \fi-360\li2520
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\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698693\'01\u-3929 ?;}{\levelnumbers;}\f10\fbias0 \fi-360\li3960\jclisttab\tx3960\lin3960 }{\listlevel\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23
\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698689\'01\u-3913 ?;}{\levelnumbers;}\f3\fbias0 \fi-360\li4680\jclisttab\tx4680\lin4680 }{\listlevel\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23\leveljc0\leveljcn0
\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698691\'01o;}{\levelnumbers;}\f2\fbias0 \fi-360\li5400\jclisttab\tx5400\lin5400 }{\listlevel\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1
\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698693\'01\u-3929 ?;}{\levelnumbers;}\f10\fbias0 \fi-360\li6120\jclisttab\tx6120\lin6120 }{\listname ;}\listid741292931}{\list\listtemplateid1056454378\listhybrid{\listlevel\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23
\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698691\'01o;}{\levelnumbers;}\f2\fbias0 \fi-360\li360\jclisttab\tx360\lin360 }{\listlevel\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0
\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698691\'01o;}{\levelnumbers;}\f2\fbias0 \fi-360\li1080\jclisttab\tx1080\lin1080 }{\listlevel\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360
\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698693\'01\u-3929 ?;}{\levelnumbers;}\f10\fbias0 \fi-360\li1800\jclisttab\tx1800\lin1800 }{\listlevel\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext
\leveltemplateid67698689\'01\u-3913 ?;}{\levelnumbers;}\f3\fbias0 \fi-360\li2520\jclisttab\tx2520\lin2520 }{\listlevel\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698691
\'01o;}{\levelnumbers;}\f2\fbias0 \fi-360\li3240\jclisttab\tx3240\lin3240 }{\listlevel\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698693\'01\u-3929 ?;}{\levelnumbers;}
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{\listlevel\levelnfc4\levelnfcn4\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698713\'02\'01.;}{\levelnumbers\'01;}\fi-360\li1080\jclisttab\tx1080\lin1080 }{\listlevel\levelnfc2\levelnfcn2\leveljc2
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{\listlevel\levelnfc2\levelnfcn2\leveljc2\leveljcn2\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698715\'02\'08.;}{\levelnumbers\'01;}\fi-180\li6120\jclisttab\tx6120\lin6120 }{\listname ;}\listid889027498}
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{\listlevel\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat4\levelspace0\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid814614466\'01\u-3913 ?;}{\levelnumbers;}\loch\af3\hich\af3\dbch\af0\fbias0 \fi-360\li1080\jclisttab\tx1080\lin1080 }
{\listlevel\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace0\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698693\'01\u-3929 ?;}{\levelnumbers;}\f10\fbias0 \fi-360\li1800\jclisttab\tx1800\lin1800 }{\listlevel\levelnfc23
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\'01-;}{\levelnumbers;}\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\fbias0 \fi-360\li1440\jclisttab\tx1440\lin1440 }{\listlevel\levelnfc2\levelnfcn2\leveljc2\leveljcn2\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace0\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698715
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\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace0\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698703\'02\'06.;}{\levelnumbers\'01;}\fi-360\li5040\jclisttab\tx5040\lin5040 }{\listlevel\levelnfc4\levelnfcn4\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace0
\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698713\'02\'07.;}{\levelnumbers\'01;}\fi-360\li5760\jclisttab\tx5760\lin5760 }{\listlevel\levelnfc2\levelnfcn2\leveljc2\leveljcn2\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace0\levelindent0{\leveltext
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\leveltemplateid67698691\'01o;}{\levelnumbers;}\f2\fbias0 \fi-360\li1080\jclisttab\tx1080\lin1080 }{\listlevel\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698693
\'01\u-3929 ?;}{\levelnumbers;}\f10\fbias0 \fi-360\li1800\jclisttab\tx1800\lin1800 }{\listlevel\levelnfc23\levelnfcn23\leveljc0\leveljcn0\levelfollow0\levelstartat1\levelspace360\levelindent0{\leveltext\leveltemplateid67698689\'01\u-3913 ?;}{\levelnumbers
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{\*\pnseclvl5\pndec\pnstart1\pnindent720\pnhang {\pntxtb (}{\pntxta )}}{\*\pnseclvl6\pnlcltr\pnstart1\pnindent720\pnhang {\pntxtb (}{\pntxta )}}{\*\pnseclvl7\pnlcrm\pnstart1\pnindent720\pnhang {\pntxtb (}{\pntxta )}}{\*\pnseclvl8
\pnlcltr\pnstart1\pnindent720\pnhang {\pntxtb (}{\pntxta )}}{\*\pnseclvl9\pnlcrm\pnstart1\pnindent720\pnhang {\pntxtb (}{\pntxta )}}\pard\plain \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid1524606 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\f40\fs52\insrsid1524606\charrsid14627344 THE COPY/SOUTH DOSSIER
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid1524606 {\f40\insrsid1524606\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid1524606 {\b\f40\fs36\insrsid1524606\charrsid14627344 Issues in the economics, politics, and ideology of copyright in the global South
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid1524606 {\f40\insrsid1524606\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\f40\insrsid1524606 
\par }{\f40\insrsid7240289 
\par 
\par 
\par }{\f40\insrsid1524606 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid1524606 {\f40\fs28\insrsid1524606\charrsid2429221 Edited by }{\f40\fs28\insrsid1524606 
\par Alan Story
\par Colin Darch
\par and Debora Halbert}{\f40\fs28\insrsid1524606\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid1524606 {\f40\fs28\insrsid1524606 
\par 
\par 
\par 
\par 
\par }{\f40\fs28\insrsid7240289 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid1524606 {\f40\fs28\insrsid1524606\charrsid2429221 Researched and published by 
\par The Copy/South Research Group
\par }{\f40\fs28\insrsid1524606 May}{\f40\fs28\insrsid1524606\charrsid2429221  2006
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid1524606 {\insrsid1524606 
\par }{\insrsid7240289 
\par 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid1524606 {\insrsid1524606\charrsid8737783 Published by the Copy / South Research Group
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\par ISBN: 978-0-9553140-0-1 (downloadable online edition)}{\insrsid1524606 
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\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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SOME INITIAL WORDS\'85}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734259 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 INTELLECTUAL\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 PROPERTY\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 SYSTEM\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 IS\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 PRIVATISING\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 HUMANITY\loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 S
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 COMMON\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 CULTURAL\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 HERITAGE}{
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1.1 Introduction}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734262 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 privatisatio\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 n and monopolisation discourage\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  creativity and invention}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {
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\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Why this \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 tendency is against the interests of creators and society in general}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {
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1.4 Monopoly ownership and its consequences for artistic expression}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734265 \\h }{
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\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 2\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \endash \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 THE\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 ECONOMICS
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 OF\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 GLOBAL\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 COPYRIGHT:\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 THE\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 NET\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 CAPITAL\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 FLOW
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 FROM\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 THE\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 GLOBAL\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 PERIPHERY\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 TO\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 THE\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 CENTRE}{
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734267 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200360037000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 29}}}}}{
\scaps0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }\pard\plain \s45\ql \li440\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tldot\tx8302\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin440\itap0 \i\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734268"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200360038000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
2.1 Introduction}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734268 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734269"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200360039000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
2.2 Calculating copyright-relate\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 d capital flows \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 from the global periphery to the centre}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {
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\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200370030000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 2.
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 3\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  From TRIPS to TRAP: Free Trade Agreement\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 s\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  and \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 c\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 opyright}{
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734270 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200370030000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 34}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734271"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200370031000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 2.4 R
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 eprographic collecting societies and their projected growth in the South}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF 
_Toc135734271 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200370031000000}}}{\fldrslt {
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 41}}}}}{\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734272"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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2.5 How much of this capital flow is related to copyright?}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734272 \\h }{
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200370032000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 46}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734273"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200370033000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 2.
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 6\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  How \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \lquote \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 national treatment\loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 increases the net outflow of capital from the South}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734273 \\h }{
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200370033000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 48}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }\pard\plain \s44\ql \li220\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tldot\tx8302\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin220\itap0 \scaps\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734274"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200370034000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 SECTION 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 3\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \endash \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 PRIVATISING\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 THE
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 PUBLIC\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 DOMAIN\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 AND\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 IMPOSING\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 WESTERN/NORTHERN\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 ASSUMPTIONS\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 ABOUT
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 CULTURAL\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 PRODUCTION}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734274 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200370034000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 52}}}}}{
\scaps0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }\pard\plain \s45\ql \li440\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tldot\tx8302\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin440\itap0 \i\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734275"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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3.1 Introduction}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734275 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734276"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200370036000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 3.2
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 The basic values and ideology of copyright}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF 
_Toc135734276 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200370036000000}}}{\fldrslt {
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 53}}}}}{\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734277"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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3.3 The differing traditions of cultural creation in the South}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734277 \\h }{
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\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
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\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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3.4 Culture and creativity in the Arab countries}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734278 \\h }{
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\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
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\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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3.5 Traditional/indigenous knowledge and copyright\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 : a comp\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 lex issue.}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {
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\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 c\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 riminalisation\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 of \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 c\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 opying in the South and the 
\loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \lquote \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 p\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 iracy\loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 q\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 uestion}{
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\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 The \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 privatisa\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 tion of common culture proceeds in the S\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 outh\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 , \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
at a quickening pace.}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734281 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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3.8 Western cultural conglomerates and the global marketing of culture from the global South}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734282 \\
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3.9 The role of the World Intellectual Property Organi\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 sation in spreading the copyright system and its narratives to co\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 untries of the South}{
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\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 4\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \endash \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 SERIOUS\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 AND
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 DAMAGING\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 BARRIERS\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 TO\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 THE\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 USE\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 OF\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 COPYRIGHTED
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 MATERIALS\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 IN\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 COUNTRIES\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  
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\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 experiences from Kenya}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734287 \\h }{
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\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 4\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  How copyright hinders librarians in providing services\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  to library users}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {
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{\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\langnp1033\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  laws add to other restrictions on learning in rural South Africa: an October 2005 survey from Mpumalanga}{
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4.6 Copyright gets in the way when teachers want to provide student course & study packs}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734290 \\h }{
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4.7 An academic from Colombia tries hard to \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 \hich\f56 do his research \'85\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 with great difficulty}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }
{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734291 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200390031000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 115}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734292"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200390032000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 \hich\f56 
4.8 Using the Internet in the South: a tangled web of copyright toll-gates and \'93\loch\f56 \hich\f56 keep out\'94\loch\f56  messages}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734292 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200390032000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 116}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734293"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200390033000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
4.9 Using intellectual property laws to prop up proprietary computer software}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734293 \\h }{
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200390033000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 119}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734294"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200390034000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
4.10 The visually impaired in the South: shut out of reading by copyright roadblocks}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734294 \\h }{
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200390034000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 127}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734295"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200390035000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
4.11 How copyright presumptions trump translation possibil\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 \hich\f56 ities \'85\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 and limit the sharing of knowledge}{
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734295 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200390035000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 133}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734296"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200390036000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 4.12 Three 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 l\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 egal \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 q\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 uestions \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 r\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 elated to \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 a
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 ccess}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734296 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 
{\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200390036000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 136}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734297"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200390037000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
4.13 Copyright and cultural d\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 omination by th\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 e North: a long-standing conflict that is getting s\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 harper}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }
{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734297 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200390037000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 141}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }\pard\plain \s44\ql \li220\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tldot\tx8302\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin220\itap0 \scaps\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734298"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200390038000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 SECTION 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 5\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \endash \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 RESISTANCE\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 FROM
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 THE\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 SOUTH\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 TO\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
THE\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 GLOBAL\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 COPYRIGHT\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 SYSTEM}{
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734298 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200390038000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 147}}}}}{
\scaps0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }\pard\plain \s45\ql \li440\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tldot\tx8302\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin440\itap0 \i\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734299"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003200390039000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\langnp7177\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
5.1 Introduction}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734299 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734300"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300030000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\langnp7177\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
5.2 A brief history of Southern resistance to copyright\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56 s la\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 ws and assumptions}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734300 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300030000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 148}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734301"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300031000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
5.3 National or regional movements o\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 pposing TRIPS as interferen\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 ce in their cultural life}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734301 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300031000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 154}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734302"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300032000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 5.4 Venezuela
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  i\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 nitiative on the \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 r\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 ights of \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 a\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 uthors}{
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734302 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300032000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 155}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734303"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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5.5 Resisting the privatisation of cultural life}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734303 \\h }{
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300033000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 157}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734304"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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5.6 Possible alternatives to copyright in the South}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734304 \\h }{
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300034000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 159}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734305"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300035000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
5.7 The A2K (Access to Knowledg\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 e\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 ) treaty group}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF 
_Toc135734305 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300035000000}}}{\fldrslt {
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 161}}}}}{\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734306"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300036000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
5.8 Free software: a viable and cheaper alternative}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734306 \\h }{
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300036000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 164}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734307"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300037000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
5.9 The Creative Commons approach}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734307 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 
{\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300037000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 167}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734308"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300038000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
5.10 The Canto Livre example from Brazil}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734308 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 
{\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300038000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 170}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734309"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300039000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
5.11 Open access journals and open archiving initiatives}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734309 \\h }{
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300300039000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 171}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734310"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300310030000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
5.12 Co-ordinating activities a\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 cross the South}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734310 \\h }{
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300310030000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 174}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734311"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300310031000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 5.13 Satire
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  and \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 a\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 rt as \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 r\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 esistance}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734311 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300310031000000}}}{\fldrslt {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 175}}}}}{
\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734312"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300310032000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
5.14 Co-operation \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 in the South as part of wider \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 intellectual property activism}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734312 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }\pard\plain \s44\ql \li220\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tldot\tx8302\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin220\itap0 \scaps\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 HYPERLINK \\l "_Toc135734313"}{
\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 6\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \endash \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 CONCLUDING\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 THE
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 DOSSIER\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'85\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 AND\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 LOOKING\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 AHEAD}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF 
_Toc135734313 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 08d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000080000000e0000005f0054006f0063003100330035003700330034003300310033000000}}}{\fldrslt {
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 177}}}}}{\scaps0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
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\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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6.1 Some closing words}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734314 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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6.2 Glossary of fifty copyright terms, phrases, and copyright-related organisations which are used in the Copy/South Dossier}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734315 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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\i0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
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\cs19\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid7697617 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\ul\cf2\lang1024\langfe1024\dbch\af13\noproof\insrsid13913595\charrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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Index of the C/S Dossier}{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595 \tab }{\field{\*\fldinst {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\webhidden\insrsid13913595  PAGEREF _Toc135734316 \\h }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\insrsid13913595 {\*\datafield 
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\scaps0\fs24\lang1024\langfe1024\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid3681623 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 }}\pard\plain 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid3681623 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\scaps\f0\fs28\ul\insrsid14775811 
\par \page }{\b\fs28\ul\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\qj \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid1387252 \b\i\f1\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\i0\insrsid3681623\charrsid10362080 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734259}SOME INITIAL WORDS\'85
{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734259}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid3681623 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid3681623 
\par }{\insrsid16519116\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 This dossier is addressed to readers who want to learn more about the global role of copyright and, in particular, its largely negative role in the global South. In the }{\insrsid7827322 190 or so}{
\insrsid15160372\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 pages }{\insrsid7827322 of text }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 that follow, we in the Copy/South Research Group, who have rese
arched and debated these issues over the past 12 month, have tried to critically analyse and assess a wide range of copyright-related issues that impact on the daily lives (and future lives) of those who live in the global South.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par Perhaps the easiest way to explain the aims and objectives of the Copy/South Dossier is to state what they are }{\b\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 not}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 \'85 and to whom it is }{\b\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 not}{
\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221  addressed. This dossier is }{\b\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 not}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221  a policy}{\b\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 brief directed mainly }{
\insrsid9268634\charrsid2429221 at }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 experts in copyright law or specialists in development economics. It does not
 contain page after numbing page of dry and often abstract formulations about the legal, social, political, and economic aspects of the increasingly contested topic of copyright. Yes, this dossier certainly does discuss a wide range of policy questions be
cause copyright is a very political question and existing approaches to knowledge and access can certainly be changed. But it does so in a manner which, we hope, will bring these questions }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 alive
}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 , show the direct human stakes of the many debates, and make 
the issues accessible to those who want to go beyond the platitudes, half-truths, and serious distortions that often plague discussions of this topic.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par }{\b\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 Nor}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
 is the dossier primarily addressed to policy makers (such as bureaucrats at the World Intellectual Property Organisation in Geneva), or to executives of large multi-national corporations (the Rupert Murdoch}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 s and Bill Gates}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221  of this world) or to those who
 are working, often with huge financial resources, to uphold and perpetuate the current global and domestic copyright regimes. These people, their companies, and their organisations are fully aware of many of the comments and criticisms made in this dossi
er, admittedly often put forward previously and currently in a more partial and tentative way. Some of the same criticisms }{\insrsid12085640\charrsid2429221 included here w}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 ere made, for example, in the 1960}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 s by then newly-independent countries in the South during a period labelled the }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 international crisis of copyright}{\insrsid10166911 
\rquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 . Others were voiced in 2004 and 2005 as part of the }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 development agenda}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
 being led by 13 governments from the South. But those promoting the current copyright system have not listened or acted. (In fact, since the 1995 signing of the World Trade Organisation}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
s Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)}{\cs18\super\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  For a definition of important intellectual property\endash 
related organisations, laws, and concepts, see the Glossary found in Part Six at the end of this dossier. }}}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221  they have made these intellectual property regimes even more restrictive and even more impenetrab}{
\insrsid16018739 le barriers to knowledge access}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 )}{\insrsid16018739 .}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221  Instead, the main intended audience is information }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
activists}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 , those working at the copyright }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 coal face}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
, such as librarians and teachers,}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid12085640\charrsid2429221 anti-globalisation activists}{\insrsid4534652\charrsid2429221 , }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
cultural workers, such as writers and musicians, and NGOs. We particularly encourage all of you to join in the debate}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par To be clear, this document is }{\b\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 not }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 a manifesto. When you start reading this publication you will appreciate, almost from page one, that there is }{\b\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 not }
{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 a single point of view being expressed. This is deliberate. Instead of providing a check list or recipe book for reform or attempting to give all of the answers to some very difficult questions, it is intended to open up}{
\insrsid7603589  \endash  }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 and re-open in some cases}{\insrsid7603589  \endash  }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 an often-ignored debate and to pose what we think are some of the more pressing questions for f
urther research and action. For example, we think it more important to figure out ways that illiterate people can read their first book}{\insrsid7603589  \endash  }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 something that current copyright laws }{
\insrsid12085640\charrsid2429221 often }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 restrict (though they are certainly not the only barrier)}{\insrsid7603589  \endash  }{\insrsid213985 than how to }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 protect e-books. }{
\insrsid3486294\charrsid2429221 W}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 e are asking}{\insrsid3486294\charrsid2429221 , as well}{\insrsid4785787\charrsid2429221 , if}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221  the purpose of copyright law }{
\insrsid14556885\charrsid2429221 is }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 to provide copyright protection to cake recipes, as has recently }{\insrsid13046704\charrsid2429221 been tried }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 in }{\insrsid11697056\charrsid2429221 
Italy.}{\cs18\super\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Barbara McMahon,\rquote  Italians protect panettone by \lquote copyrighting\rquote  the recipe\rquote , The Guardian (London), 6 December 6, 2005. }}}{
\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
 And for us, cultural diversity is far more important than the promotion of an increasingly globalised (and copyright-protected) single culture. The emphasis in this dossier is more on critique and expose rather than on solutions,
 though we also examine some alternatives and reforms in Section Five. This is, as the dictionary defines the word }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 dossier}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 , a }{
\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 collection or bundle of papers giving detailed information about a particular}{\insrsid12085640\charrsid2429221 \'85}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221  subject.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{
\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221  And while we hope that all of the more than 50 articles included here are provocative and well-researched, they are }{\i\insrsid3681623\charrsid213985 not}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
 the final word on our still much under-researched subject: copyright in countries of the global South, a term we prefer to the more commonly}{\insrsid14964383\charrsid2429221 -}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 used phrase }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{
\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 developing countries.}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
 (We prefer it because, many countries in the South in Asia, Africa, and South America are not actually developing and we reject the notion that travelling along the same development path previously travelled by }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{
\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 developed countries}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221  is the only way forward for more than three-quarters of the world}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 s population). 

\par 
\par Two points require clarification. Most studies on copyright focus primarily on the situation in the United States, Europe, and other rich countries. By focusing primarily on conditions in the South, we do }{\b\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 not}{
\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221  mean to imply that many of the conditions and problems we highlight are unique to the South; many of the same conditions also prevail in rich Northern (Western) countries.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 Yet, there are some particular problems in the South and some problems that bite with particular ferocity here. And if Southern manifestations ---and possible solutions}{\insrsid15212567  \endash }{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 are not specifically highlighted, they are often forgotten about entirely or passed over in a sentence or two. It 
is often assumed, wrongly, that the access situation in Boston or Berlin or Brisbane is the same as that being faced in Bogot\'e1 or Beirut or Bangalore, let alone in their rural hinterlands. Second, we also recognise that }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{
\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 the South}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221  is }{\b\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 not}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221  a homogenous area
 either and again, we do not intend to imply that the copyright situation across the three continents and the more than 150 countries of the global South is similar.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par }{\insrsid12085640\charrsid2429221 As you start to read this text, }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 you may ask: how did the Copy/South dossier come into being?}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
A first and draft version was prepared for a four-day intensive workshop held in August 2005 at the University of Kent in the United Kingdom and organised by the Copy/South Research Group. Of the 22 people who attended this }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{
\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 by invitation only}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221  session, more than 15 were from countries of the South. (See the list of those attending below).}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 At this lively and informative session, the draft dossier was subjected to some sharp criticisms; numerous suggestions for improvement were made, and additional arti
cles and research angles proposed. A second version was circulated internally in January 2006. Further changes were made and this third version is the public version. It is a work of North/South collaboration, a product of the sharing of knowledge.}{
\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par The editors of this dossier are: }{\insrsid6044889\charrsid2429221 Alan Story (United Kingdom), }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 Colin Darch (South Africa), }{\insrsid6044889\charrsid2429221 and }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
Debora Halbert (United States)}{\insrsid6044889\charrsid2429221 . }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par Those who have contributed to this dossier (most of whom attended the C/S workshop) are: Adam Mannan (United Kingdom), Akalemwa Ngend
a (Zambia), Beatriz Busaniche (Argentina), Denise Nicholson (South Africa), Federico Heinz (Argentina), Jennifer de Beer (South Africa), }{\insrsid3032070\charrsid2429221 Norah Mugambi (Kenya), }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
Joost Smiers (The Netherlands), Jos\'e9 Ant\'f3nio Torres Reyes (Mexico), Juan Publio Triana Cordov\'ed (
Cuba), Lawrence Liang (India ), Maud Stephan (Lebanon), Roberto Verzola (The Philippines), Ronaldo Lemos (Brazil), Shishir Kumar Jha (India), Zapopan Martin Muela-Meza (Mexico), Carlos Affonso Pereira de Souza (Brazil), Papa Touman\'e9
 Ndiaye (Senegal), Majid Yar (United Kingdom), Teresa Hackett (Ireland)}{\insrsid213985 , Colin Darch, Debora}{\insrsid12085640\charrsid2429221  Halbert and Alan Story.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid4208489\charrsid2429221 
Special thanks to graphic artists Ulrike Brueckner and Sebastian Lu}{\insrsid8326873 c}{\insrsid4208489\charrsid2429221 tgert }{\insrsid7095850\charrsid2429221 of Germany }{\insrsid4208489\charrsid2429221 
for their contributions to the online and printed version of this dossier. }{\insrsid7095850\charrsid2429221 And particular thanks to William Abrams }{\insrsid12344626\charrsid2429221 
of the United States who undertook the important job of creating an index for the dossier.}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par You will notice that the authors and editors of the various sections, articles, and introductions are not specifically identified. Again this is intentional as the dossier is the work of many people who have pooled their knowledge and differing experience
s. And it should be emphasised that }{\b\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 every person listed above does not necessarily agree with or endorse all of the contents of the entire dossier. }{\b\insrsid14305830 
\par }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
\par We wish to thank the following organisations for their financial support of the Copy}{\insrsid12412607\charrsid2429221 /}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 South Research Group: 1) The Open Society Institute, Budapest, Hungary; 2) HIVOS, }{
\insrsid6044889\charrsid2429221 The Hague, }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 The Netherlands; 3) The Research Fund of Kent Law School, Canterbury, Kent UK.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par If you wish to contact the C/S group for any reason}{\insrsid15212567  \endash }{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 for example, to make criticisms of the dossier, to give your own examples, to join in the future research effort}{
\insrsid15212567  \endash }{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 our e-mail address is:}{\insrsid16018739  }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid873610\charrsid2429221  HYPERLINK "mailto:contact@copysouth.org" }{
\insrsid1708660\charrsid2429221 {\*\datafield 
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7000790073006f007500740068002e006f007200670000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\ul\cf2\insrsid873610\charrsid2429221 contact@copysouth.org}}}{\insrsid16018739  }{\b\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
\par This dossier is }{\i\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 not}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid9268634\charrsid2429221 restricted }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 by copyright. Feel free to distribute it, to photocopy it, to transl
ate it into other languages, to change its format, to link to the C/S website from your own }{\insrsid12412607\charrsid2429221 web}{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
site, or to quote from it in your own research, writing, or activism. We request only that you state where (the Copy/South dossier) the material initially appeared.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid3681623\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid213985 
\par }{\insrsid9453595\charrsid2429221 \line 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx8280\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid213985 {\b\fs28\insrsid213985\charrsid2429221 THE COPY/SOUTH RESEARCH GROUP}{\b\fs28\insrsid213985 \tab May}{\b\fs28\insrsid213985\charrsid2429221  2006 

\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid213985 {\b\insrsid213985\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid213985 {
\b\fs26\insrsid213985\charrsid213985 To receive one or more copies (maximum five) of this dossier in the post, contact the Copy/South group at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\b\fs26\insrsid213985\charrsid213985  HYPERLINK "mailto:contact@copysouth.org" }{
\b\fs26\insrsid1708660\charrsid213985 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000001600000063006f006e007400610063007400400063006f007000790073006f007500740068002e006f00720067000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b3a0000006d00610069006c0074006f003a0063006f006e007400610063007400400063006f00
7000790073006f007500740068002e006f007200670000000000090000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\b\fs26\ul\insrsid213985\charrsid213985 contact@copysouth.org}}}{\b\fs26\insrsid213985\charrsid213985 
\par It is available for free either as a printed booklet or as a CD. Distribution is subject to availability. Provide your complete postal address, and please be patient as receipt will likely take at least one month.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid213985 {\f1\insrsid213985\charrsid2429221 \page 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx8280\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2429221 {\insrsid9453595\charrsid2429221 \page }{\insrsid15732060 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\qj \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid16519116 \b\i\f1\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\i0\insrsid3681623\charrsid10362080 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734260}INTRODUCTION}{
\b0\i0\insrsid16018739\charrsid10362080 {\*\bkmkend _Toc135734260} }{\b0\i0\insrsid6229566\charrsid10362080 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16519116 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid6229566\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15864341 {\b\insrsid6229566\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
To introduce the Copy/South project and this dossier, one must first introduce the concept of copyright. Copyright has a long history emerging from 18th century English law. Generally speaking, it is a legal regime that provides a limited form of monop
oly protection for }{\insrsid2055217\charrsid2429221 written and }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 creative works fixed in a tangible }{\insrsid15814419\charrsid2429221 (}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 material}{\insrsid15814419\charrsid2429221 )}{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  form. }{\insrsid2055217\charrsid2429221 The owner of the copyright is given the }{\i\insrsid2055217\charrsid2429221 exclusive}{\insrsid2055217\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid5530814\charrsid2429221 or }{
\i\insrsid5530814\charrsid2429221 sole}{\insrsid5530814\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid2055217\charrsid2429221 right}{\insrsid4534652\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid2055217\charrsid2429221 to }{\insrsid4534652\charrsid2429221 do }{\insrsid2055217\charrsid2429221 
a number of things}{\insrsid2056338\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid11812702\charrsid2429221 with that work }{\insrsid2056338\charrsid2429221 such as the following: }{\insrsid2055217\charrsid2429221 a) to make copies}{\insrsid2056338\charrsid2429221 
 of the work, }{\insrsid3156992\charrsid2429221 for example, by photocopying it}{\insrsid11812702\charrsid2429221 , b) }{\insrsid2056338\charrsid2429221 to perform the work, such as a play, c) to translate the work into another language, d) }{
\insrsid4534652\charrsid2429221 to display it publicly, such as using a photograph in a magazine. And to break these property-like restrictions is copyright infringement. W}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
hile originally focused upon written work, copyright has been extended and expanded over the years to include maps, artwork, music, phonographic records (and later audio tapes and now CDs), photographs, and, most recently, computer software and dat
a bases. Copyright protects the specific expression of an idea, not the idea itself, and the law}{\insrsid15212567  \endash }{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 in some, though not all, countries}{\insrsid3623856  \endash  }{
\insrsid4534652\charrsid2429221 allow}{\insrsid8326873 s}{\insrsid4534652\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 limited }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 fair }{\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221 use}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221  or}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 fair }{\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221 dealing}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid11348471\charrsid2429221 by users }{\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221 of}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  works }{\insrsid11348471\charrsid2429221 in which the copyright is owned or held by others}{
\insrsid12725911\charrsid2429221 .}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 Today, the law protects (and restricts) a copyrighted work for the life of the author plus fifty years in some countries }{\i\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 or}{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  plus seventy years in others }{\insrsid3623856 \endash  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 notably in Europe and the United States where most copyrighted works are produced}{\insrsid3623856  \endash  }{
\i\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 or}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  even longer in a few countries. It is relatively rare, however, for an author to retain rights to creative works; usually these rights are transferred (the legal word is }{
\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 assigned}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 ) to a publisher or record producer in exchange for publication, royalties or a flat fee.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 (In the case of employees who create copyrighted works, their employer }{\insrsid15814419\charrsid2429221 owns }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 the copyright in most cases.) The 1960}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 s UK rock group The Beatles did not, for example, own copyright in the songs they wrote, performed, and recorded. 
\par 
\par While originating in 18th century European law, copyright law has become international in scope. Yet, in many ways, copyright }{\insrsid15814419\charrsid2429221 has }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 always }{\insrsid15814419\charrsid2429221 been }{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 an international issue.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 When copyright owners (as distinct from authors) in the 18th and 19th centuries were demanding protection for their work, 
the threat to copyright control often came from booksellers publishing cheap editions for a foreign market or importing cheap editions from abroad to compete in the domestic market.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
It is now conventional wisdom to acknowledge that the United States was one of the worst copyright }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 pirates}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  in the 19th century}{
\insrsid12725911\charrsid2429221  when it was a developing country}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 .}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
(The US government refused to extend copyright protection to foreign works, thereby creating a domestic market in cheap reprints of popular titles.) The creation and adoption of the European}{\insrsid15814419\charrsid2429221 -}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 inspired}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  Berne Convention in 1886}{\insrsid8941061\charrsid2429221 , which remains the leading international copyright agreement, }{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 further illustrates the importance of international protection of copyright from the 19th century forward.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par It is also conventional wisdom that the }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 information age}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
 has fundamentally transformed the scope and intensity of international copyright battles.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
While the history of copyright is the history of copyright expansion, computer technology has radically altered the balance between copyright owners and knowledge users. }{\i\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 First,}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
 the ease with which digital material can be copied and distributed through }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 pirate}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  channels has increased dramatically. }{
\i\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 Second,}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  and perhaps more importantly, everyday consumers and users of copyrighted works are now defined as }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 pirates}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  and }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 thieves}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
 as they go about sharing information, music, entertainment, and other materials found on the Internet.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 (It does need to be emphasised, however, that many parts of the global South}{\insrsid7603589  
\endash  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 and many who live here}{\insrsid7603589  \endash  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 are not }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 plugged into}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
 the Internet as they lack computers, reliable phone lines, and electrical connectivity.) These two trends help highlight the stark differences between a culture of sharing and a culture of monopolisation and privatisation. As }{
\insrsid11213718\charrsid2429221 long-time }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 Philippines activist Roberto Verzola explained at the Copy/South workshop}{\insrsid11360034\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 (mentioned above in }{
\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 Some initial words\'85}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11360034\charrsid2429221 )}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  the}{\insrsid8326873 re are two main competing value}{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  systems in the world and, in the current era,}{\insrsid6634369  }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221 the}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  value system of monopolisation, corporatisation, and privat
isation is being imposed on what I think is a better system, a system of sharing.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
 As the economy continues to globalise and as we become further dependent upon computer technology and need information exchange ever more urgently, copyright and its assumpt
ions have moved from a marginal place in economic and development theory to a relatively central place.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par The fact that copyright owners, represented by the software, music, movie, and publishing industries, have been lobbying for stricter copyright contro
l is not new. But the past few decades have been marked by a remarkable expansion of copyright laws. Perhaps the most significant victories for these copyright owners was the successful negotiation and establishment of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspec
ts of Intellectual Property Agreement (TRIPS), which all countries seeking to become part of the World Trade Organization were }{\insrsid11213718\charrsid2429221 and are }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
required to sign. When TRIPS was negotiated and came into force in 1995, it did so with considerable resistance from the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
 South, led by India and Brazil. From the start, it was clear to many that the TRIPS Agreement would primarily benefit already developed Northern countries far more than those in }{\insrsid8326873 the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  South. It is the multinationals of the North who }{\i\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 already}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
 own the overwhelming percentage of global intellectual property rights (copyright, patents, trade marks and other types}{\insrsid8271367\charrsid2429221 );}{\insrsid4016234\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
the creation, expansion, and stricter enforcement of property rights, including intellectual property rights, overwhelmingly benefits those }{\i\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 already}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
 owning property. Moreover, given that intellectual property rights extend far into the future}{\insrsid7603589  \endash  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 for example, some copyright works created in 2006 will still be under copyright in 2106 and }{
\insrsid814684\charrsid2429221 will }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 still }{\insrsid814684\charrsid2429221 be }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 bringing in revenue}{\insrsid7603589  \endash  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 agreements such a
s TRIPS serve to reinforce patterns of wealth and inequality that will, if we do not create a counter movement, be a burden o}{\insrsid8326873 n}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  the backs of several future generations, including those in the South.}{
\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par Ten years have passed since TRIPS became reality. Copyright has only increased in importance over the past ten years and the pressure to enact and enforce laws as tough as or tougher than the United States continues to mount.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 In fact, the US was not satisfied with the level of protection in the TRIPS agreement and has continued bilateral negotiations with many countries on all other continents to create what has come to be called }{
\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 TRIPS plus}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid23322\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 treaties. The more common name for such treaties is }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 free trade agreements}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 ; they follow a hypocritical (and contradictory) agenda of purporting to }{\insrsid11360034\charrsid2429221 promote }{\insrsid10166911 
\lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 freer }{\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221 trade}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221  in}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
 monopolised goods such as patented pharmaceuticals and Hollywood blockbusters. We ask, }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 how much }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 free trade}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }
{\insrsid23322\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 in Nigerian or Cuban or Chinese films occurs within the US or Europe?}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  So it will be argued he
re that TRIPS and its component parts, such as the Berne Convention, have simply reproduced the types of economic inequalities associated with the earliest stages of colonialism and imperialism.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 

\par }{\insrsid7163996\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 This dossier seeks to provide backing to the argument that copyright laws imposed upon the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
 South have had, and will continue to have, a negative impact.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 The document is designed to provide an introductory and broad analysis of the issues associated with copyright for the }{
\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  South.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 It also seeks to highlight some of the controversies surrounding copyright law.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 As mentioned in the preface, the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  South does not have a monolithic approach to copyright.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
What we seek to do in the following pages is provide a critical assessment of copyright and its impact on the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  South, keeping the issues of }{\insrsid6650040\charrsid2429221 both }
{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 access to knowledge and the protection of local cultures }{\insrsid6650040\charrsid2429221 and cultural diversity }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 at the forefront.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 

\par 
\par The dossier is divided into five main sections, which we called }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 research propositions}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
 when we began this research in 2004. The first section/ proposition looks generally at the impact of copyright on culture and seeks to highlight the unstated assumptions behind the copyright paradigm or model
. The argument in this section is that the privatisation of culture through copyright is not beneficial.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 Rather, }{\insrsid14898028\charrsid2429221 such }{\insrsid14964383\charrsid2429221 
privatisation fundamentally}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  transforms our relationship to culture and centralises its ownership in the hands of corporate powers, often not even associated with the local culture.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 We address issues related to privatisation, the threat of }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 propertisation}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
 to the creative process, and the role of corporate culture in the ownership of copyrights. 
\par 
\par The second section looks at the political economy of copyright and examines the issue from an economic perspective.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 Here, we argue that the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  South is not the economic beneficiary of international copyright laws. Rather, the countries where more than }{\insrsid14898028\charrsid2429221 three quarters }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 of the world}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 s population resides are expected to join, without complaint or criticism, a global economy which, on the one hand, offers increased protection to Northern-owned copyrights in the }{
\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  South and hence greater South-North revenue flows, while, on the other hand, continues to siphon }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221 marketable}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221  materials}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  from the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  South for the profit of }{\insrsid7356790\charrsid2429221 
corporations in }{\insrsid14964383\charrsid2429221 the global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  North. In other words, a very unequal exchange. Specifically, we look at examples of capital flow through collecting societies, the role of free trade agre
ements, and the economic effects, in practice, of the concept }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 national treatment.}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  
\par 
\par The third section looks specifically at the impact of the copyright system, as a western construction, on the public domain and on many long-standing cultural practices a
nd forms across the South. In recent years, the concept of the public domain has received theoretical attention and has taken on new meaning in a world suffering from increased privatisation. This section develops an argument regarding the benefits of the
 public domain, especially in the context of regions }{\insrsid6650040\charrsid2429221 and countries }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 such as the Arab world, Indonesia}{\insrsid6650040\charrsid2429221 , }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 or }{
\insrsid6650040\charrsid2429221 the }{\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221 Indian sub}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 -continent where }{\insrsid7356790\charrsid2429221 important cultural forms such }{\insrsid14964383\charrsid2429221 as music}{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  and story-telling have very different traditions from those existing in France or Germany. Of specific interest here are the questions of so-called copyright }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221 
piracy}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221  and}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  the relationship between the public domain and what is called }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 traditional }{
\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221 knowledge}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221  and}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  the ways in which copyright issues impact }{\insrsid8326873 on }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
indigenous communities. 
\par 
\par The fourth section seeks to develop the argument that the barriers created by copyright are damaging to access to knowledge by the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  South.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 While the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  North remains intent upon protecting what it sees as its }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 private property}
{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 , those in the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
 South continue to seek access to basic knowledge in order to improve the conditions of those living in poverty and sub-standard conditions. This section investigates barriers established to limit access to knowledge by a range of people in a range of sit
uations: students, teachers, the visually impaired, the illiterate, the general public, in libraries, in universities, on the Internet, on their computers.}{\insrsid9109958\charrsid2429221  And we also ask the question: precisely what }{\insrsid10166911 
\lquote }{\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221 knowledge}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221  should}{\insrsid9109958\charrsid2429221  be available?}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par The final section of the dossier looks to the resistance that is emerging against copyright.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 Resistance to copyright by the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
 South was an integral part of the TRIPS negotiations.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 Despite this resistance, the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
 South was unsuccessful in substantially changing TRIPS. 
However, in the ten years since TRIPS was signed, the issues and contradictions of copyright (and patents, which are not the subject of this dossier) have taken on a higher profile and people throughout the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  South (and the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  North) have begun to actively resist the imposition of strong copyright laws as well as begin to reconfigure the law }{
\insrsid13854589 \endash  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 and appropriate it for their own purposes.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par We believe that a focus on the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  South has been too long ignored in discussions of copyright}{\insrsid10628908\charrsid2429221 ; }{\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221 this dossier seeks
}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid10628908\charrsid2429221 to }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 remedy this situation. The argument made by developed countries is that copyright is }{\insrsid13700228\charrsid2429221 supposedly }{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 good for their economies so it must be good for everyone in the world.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 However, a }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 one-size fits }{
\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221 all}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3875286\charrsid2429221  approach}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  is detrimental to many. It is important to recognize that many countries in the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 
global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  South face poverty so severe that copyright protection is (or should be) far from an important item on their political agendas.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
Rather, literacy and education, poverty reduction, access to clean water and affordable food, and a variety of other needs are all more important than protecting the TRIPS-established property rights of foreign companies. }{
\insrsid10628908\charrsid2429221 At the same time, t}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 he dossier seeks to remain sensitive to the differences between countries in the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  South, w
here some countries have fundamentally different priorities than others. For example, while Argentina has a wonderfully vibrant free software movement seeking to extend access to information technology via free software, most people in Kenya do not even h
ave access to a phone and Internet access is well beyond range.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
Or, as several participants at the Copy/South workshop from Brazil noted, the technology revolution in Brazil will not be based upon computers (desktops or laptops), but on cell phones where everything from text messages to MP3s are exchanged.}{
\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 This leapfrogging of technological services is in stark contrast to the situation on the ground in Zambia where almost 2/3 of the state}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
s budget is funded by foreign sources.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 Thus, the similarities as well as the differences between the many countries from the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
 South must be recognized.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par Ultimately, this dossier seeks to provide an avenue into the serious discussions that must be held regarding copyright and development at the global level.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 We consis
tently look at copyright as a western idea being imposed on the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  South.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
However, it is also time to look at the innovation coming from the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  South as a model for transforming all cultures.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
Furthermore, it is time to develop deeper and stronger connections between activists in the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  North interested in critiquing copyright laws and those in the }{
\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  South seeking the same goals.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 The Copy/South project and this dossier ar
e part of what we hope will become a larger and more complex network of actors.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 We cannot promise }{\insrsid10628908\charrsid2429221 and do not deliver }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 
a unified theory or single solution}{\insrsid10628908\charrsid2429221 . Rather, }{\insrsid9063023\charrsid2429221 what }{\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221 we seek to do is place a light on the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{
\insrsid15864341\charrsid2429221  South and the problems copyright has wrought in order to not simply critique the system, but also to open the doors towards a transformation of the system at a global level.}{\insrsid2914671 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid2914671 \b\i\f1\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid2914671 \page }{\b0\i0\fs32\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid10362080 
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734261}\hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 SECTION }{\b0\i0\fs32\dbch\af13\insrsid4936081\charrsid10362080 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 1}{\b0\i0\fs32\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid10362080 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1  \hich\f1 \endash 
\loch\f1  }{\b0\i0\fs32\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid10362080 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 THE GLOBAL INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY SYSTEM IS PRIVATISING HUMANITY}{\b0\i0\fs32\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911\charrsid10362080 \loch\af1\dbch\af13\hich\f1 \rquote }{
\b0\i0\fs32\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid10362080 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 S COMMON CULTURAL HERITAGE{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734261}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\qj \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid2914671 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid11274913\charrsid10362080 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734262}1.1 Introduction
{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734262}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Much of the dominant discourse around intellectual property (IP) \hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56  whether legal or sociological \hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56 
 starts from some largely unexamined assumptions. These are first that both the concept and the system are }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \lquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
good things}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 socially and juridically, second that there is no alternative, and third that the system has worked well and continues to work well in pretty much the same way regardless of the specifics of time and place \hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56 
 in other words, through history and\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  all over the world. There is, however, also a venerable and well-developed tradition of critical thinking about intellectual property \hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56 
 especially copyright and patents \hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56  which argues that as a system for rewarding creators it is inefficient, as an econo\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 m\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
ic mechanism it amounts to a restraint on free trade, and over time it has increasingly placed more and more control over recorded human knowledge in fewer and fewer corporate hands. This is the dissident intellectual tradition from which the Copy/South p
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 r\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 oject has emerged, and it is one that is increasingly gathering support across the political spectrum.
\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 The Copy/South Project believes that, contrary to the tenor of the dominant copyright and IP discourse, it can quite easily and convincingly be shown th\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
at the global IP system, and specifically copyright, tends through privatisation to concentrate control of humanity}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 s common cultural heritage in the hands of a shrinking number of private owners, and that this tendency has a demonstrabl}{\dbch\af13\insrsid8326873 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 y}{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  negative effect o\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 n the well-being of the majority of the world}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 s poor people, most of whom live in the global South.
\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 This was the first proposition that the Copy/South Project began to investigate. We believe that the tendency to privatisation \hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56  the workings of which we w\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
ill describe in this section \hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56 
 is pernicious for several reasons. We intend to focus on two main areas of creative discourse, both of them fundamental to social and economic development. These are cultural diversity and access to teaching and educational \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
m\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
aterials (including scholarly communication). It is intuitively clear that private control of either content or the channels of communication through which content is delivered, in either of these areas, is likely to result in short-term market forces bec
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 o\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
ming determinant in deciding what is preserved, taught, delivered or developed, and what is discarded, dumped or abandoned. This is a problem for several of the reasons discussed in the following sections.
\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 The Enlightenment copyright discourse that dates \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
back to the eighteenth century Statute of Anne in the United Kingdom and to the United States Constitution implicitly proposes an idealised balance between the rights-holders}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{
\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  limited-term monopoly and the public benefit of unhindered access to the scienti\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
fic record and the products of cultural traditions. But to accept this idealism at face value is to ignore two key problems. First, most rights are now and have always been held, not by the creators themselves, but by vendors in the form of publishers and
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 later media corporations.}{\cs18\super\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  C. Darch, 
\lquote Digital divide or unequal exchange? How the northern intellectual property rights regime threatens the south\rquote  International Journal of Legal Information vol.32 (2004), p.494.}}}{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  Second, as the sale of educational and cultural content has increasingly shifted from the delivery of physical objects \hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56  books, records, pictures \hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56 
 to the provision of access to digital objects, two contradictory tendencies have emerged. It has become te\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 c\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
hnologically possible for the vendor to restrict and monitor the uses made of the digital object, while at the same time it has become technologically possible for the user \hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56  assuming, of course, that she has Internet access 
\hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56  to reproduce it immediately,\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
infinitely and at close to zero cost. The battle between these two tendencies is the battle that we see being fought out in courtrooms today over peer-to-peer networks, term extensions, software and business method patents, and the like.
\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 There is little d\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
oubt that the protection of intellectual property rights in the era of digital content is being strengthened, increasingly placing control of content in private hands. Copyright and patent law has expanded in various ways: by term extension, by the patent
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 i\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
ng of living organisms and business methods, and by the criminalisation of violations. Protection itself has become more complex and multi-layered: on top of ordinary intellectual property rights such as copyright, we now typically find access to database
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 s\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  governed by strict contracts, together with various database management systems which provide additional }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
technological protection}{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  for content, and which are themselves protected in turn, in the United States, for example, by }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 anti-circumvention measures}{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  th\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
at can effectively act as a threat to free speech and even to scientific method, which depends on full disclosure. Meanwhile, long-standing problems such as the shortage of books in most libraries across the }{\dbch\af13\insrsid15084296\charrsid2429221 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 South}{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  remain unsolved and are even getting worse\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 , as we explain later in the dossier. 
\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 How has this situation arisen? In 1973, in the aftermath of the oil price shock, the US Senate}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 s Committee on Foreign Relations held sessions to try to identify other possible vulnerabilities in the US economy, apart\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  from oil dependency. The committee \hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56  }{
\dbch\af13\insrsid8326873 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \lquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 sharp cookies}{\dbch\af13\insrsid8326873 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{
\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  all \hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56  warned that }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \lquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 information and communications}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 represented a strategic resource as far as the US were concerned, and that policies needed to be put into place to protect them as soon as possible. Sh\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
ortly afterwards, President Gerald Ford appointed a Task Force on National Information Policy, a body that famously warned that }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'93}{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 \hich\f56 property concepts have been central to [\'85\loch\f56 \hich\f56 ] social and economic activity in our society, but [\'85\loch\f56 ] were formulated to deal with ta\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
ngibles, primarily land and chattels. When information, ways of dealing with information, or information products are treated as property, issues arise which differ from those resulting from the application of property theories to tangible matter.}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'94}{\cs18\super\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Quote
d in John Howkins, The creative economy: how people make money from ideas (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2002), p.74. }}}{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  
\par 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5595395 {\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
In other words, IP protection needed to be tougher, and it needed to be imposed everywhere in the world in the same way. In the bipolar worl\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
d of the 1970s this was a tough proposition, but after the collapse of the socialist bloc and the advent of a world dominated by US economic interests, we have seen rapid progress towards such an IP regime. The process reached its nadir in the world trade
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
negotiations known as the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which were concluded in 1994, and ushered in the age of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), the Agreement on Trade-Related Intellectual Property (TRIPS), and mos
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 t\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  recently, bi-lateral trade agreements pushing vigorously for TRIPS+, that is, even stricter protection of intellectual property than is envisaged in the TRIPS agreement itself. }{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 The North Americans are of course, right in one important sense. There is little doubt that the so-called }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 creative economy}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  or copyright industries constitute an extremely important sector of the current global economic system. One popular source claimed as long ago as 1999 that the value of the global creative economy was then US$
2.2 trillion, growing at around five percent a year, and representing 7.3 percent of the world}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 s GNP of US$30.2 trillion.
\par }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 In the following sections we hope to show, not only that the process of privatisation in pursuit of ways to protect this extremely va
luable economic sector is real and harmful, but that it is in direct contradiction to the }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 tendency of technological change to continue to accelerate}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 . As the conservative weekly }{
\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 The Economist}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  recently editorialised, }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 Copyright was originally intended to enc
ourage publication by granting publishers a temporary monopoly on works so they could earn a return on their investment. But the internet and new digital technologies }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
have made the publication and distribution of works much easier and cheaper}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 . Publishers s
hould therefore need fewer, not more, property rights to protect their investment. Technology has tipped the balance in favour of the public domain.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
 Astonishingly, the editorial continues by recommending }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 a drastic reduction of copyright back to its original terms \endash 
 14 years, renewable once. This should provide media firms plenty of chance to earn profits, and consumers plenty of opportunity to rip, mix, [and] burn their back catalogues without breaking the law.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{
\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Editorial, }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 The Economist, 30 June 2005.}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid9916765 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid10362080 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734263}1.2 How }{
\b0\fs28\insrsid11274913\charrsid9916765 privatisatio}{\b0\fs28\insrsid10362080 n and monopolisation discourage}{\b0\fs28\insrsid11274913\charrsid9916765  creativity and invention}{\b0\fs28\insrsid16018739 {\*\bkmkend _Toc135734263} }{
\b0\fs28\insrsid11274913\charrsid9916765 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 If it is true, as we have argued, that the global IP regime as presently constituted shows a tendency to privatisation and monopolisation of content a\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
nd channels of communication, then the next question must be what impact}{\dbch\af13\insrsid16018739 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \endash }{\dbch\af13\insrsid16018739 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 if any}{\dbch\af13\insrsid16018739 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \endash 
}{\dbch\af13\insrsid16018739 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
does this have on creativity and invention? The question can be analysed at two levels, namely the impact of the IP system on knowledge production at the }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 individual level}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 , \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 and its impact, especially in the post-1994 phase of global capitalist development already identified, on the }{
\i\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 international division of labour}{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
. To put it another way: is it possible for the countries of the South (more commonly called }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \lquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 developing countries
}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 ) to realise their potential so long as}{\dbch\af13\insrsid16018739 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{
\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 rich countries control access to information capital?
\par 
\par }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 The 
idea that copyright and patent protection function to encourage creative endeavours has its roots in the eighteenth century Enlightenment, and was made quite explicit from the very beginning of modern copyright. It can be convincingly argued that this dis
course was as much an ideological falsification then, in the eighteenth century, as it clearly is now in the twenty-first. Indeed, Brendan Scott has contended that copyright was }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 always}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  designed to benefit publishers and distributors rather than authors.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  B
rendan Scott, \lquote }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Copyright in a frictionless world: toward a rhetoric of responsibility\rquote 
 First Monday vol.6, no. 9 (September 2001), available http://firstmonday.org/issues/issue6_9/scott/index.html}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  If this is so, and if it can be shown creators}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  motivations are complex and varied, then the argument that strong IP rights encourage innovation falls away. The question that remains is: do they have the inverse effect?}{\insrsid11274913 
\par }{\insrsid5912930\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5912930 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid5912930 
\hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 The impact at the }{\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid2436008\charrsid5912930 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 level of the individual creator}{\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid5912930 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
Much intellectual property theory rests on a largely unexamined assumption, that without a direct economic incentive, inventors will cease to invent, actors and singers will fall silent, writers will put down their pens, and creativity in general will dec
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 l\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 ine catastrophically. }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
Thus, the extensive scholarly and polemical literature on intellectual property and copyright usually appears to assume that the individual creative impulse is inherently acquisitive. In this view, creators are motivated largely by th
e prospect that they will have a monopoly right to exploit their work economically in the marketplace, under the protective umbrella of copyright law. It is this prospect that }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 calls forth}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  new works on a continuing basis.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 The metaphor of \lquote calling forth\rquote  is borrowed from Wendy J. Gordon, \lquote Authors, publishers and public goods: trading gold for dross,\rquote  Loyola of Los Angeles Law Review v.36 (Fall 2002), passim.}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
 In the absence of copyright protection, or if copyright protection is allowed to weaken, the argument goes, these creators will produce less or even nothing, and society}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
s interest in innovation and invention will be harmed. Conversely, any strengthening of intellectual property protection either by term extension or by increasing the force of intelle
ctual property legislation will benefit society by enhancing the motivation of creators, and hence the general levels of qualitative and quantitative production of creative works.
\par 
\par This hypothesis that creative acts are uniformly economic acts is problemat
ic for several different reasons, as we hope to demonstrate. First, it assumes an (in fact unproven) economic motivation for all acts of creation, and then presupposes a uniformly significant correlation between economic incentive on the one hand and inno
vation and creativity on the other. Second, it conflates the motivations and interests of individual creators in widely different circumstances with those of vendors.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  The word 
\lquote creator\rquote  is used to indicate writers, songwriters, performing musicians, computer programmers, inventors, filmmakers and others who produce the content of copyrightable or patentable works. The word \lquote vendor\rquote 
 is used to indicate publishers, database owners, recording companies and other types of corporation that typically exist to distribute content for profit. Both these categories can be referred to as \lquote rights holders\rquote 
 but it is central to the argument that they hold sharply distinguishable kinds of interest in their rights.}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  Third, it fails to distinguish, by ignoring the importance of moral rights, between the interests of }{
\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 various categories of creators}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  in intellectual property protection.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 A full-time professional writer of fiction, for example, has different interests in different aspects of copyright protection than a journalist, or than an academic producing a scholarly article in a journal.}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  
\par 
\par Although many commentators have recognised that there is a problem of incentive, few have spelled out its full implications for the way copyright protection actually functions in society
. The fundamental premise is that copyright protection performs a useful social function by encouraging the creators of works to write, assemble or compose cultural and scientific works. It does this first by recognising their so-called }{
\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 moral rights}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  to d
ecide how and when to publish (if at all), to publicly assert their authorship, and to protect the integrity of their creations. It does it second by providing a statutory framework in which such works can be put to economic use. The profit motive, in thi
s
 view, is what drives most creative activity: writers write and singers sing to make money. Unsurprisingly, representatives of the modern US entertainment industries strongly and openly endorse this stance; Jack Valenti, former head of the Motion Picture 
Association of America,}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 is, for instance,}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 on record as claiming that}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 copyright protects not just the financial interest of people who create artistic or intellectual property, but the very existence of creative work.}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\lang1033\langfe2057\super\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Jack Valenti, \lquote There\rquote s no free Hollywood,\rquote 
 New York Times, 21 June 2000, emphasis added. Available at }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.eff.org/IP/Video/20000621_valenti_oped.html" }{
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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2e00680074006d006c000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b6e00000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e006500660066002e006f00720067002f00490050002f0056006900640065006f002f00320030003000300030003600320031005f00760061006c0065006e00740069005f006f00700065
0064002e00680074006d006c0000000000000000400000000000000000000000000000340000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.eff.org/IP/Video/20000621_valenti_oped.html}}}{
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  [16 September 2003].}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  
\par 
\par Two questions arise. First, is it true that the primary motivation for creative work amongst writers and artists is financial gain? It is intuitively clear that while some creators may be motivated by the prospect of riches, the probability of these being
 in significant amounts is about equivalent to their chances of winning the lottery. Second, even conceding that some financial motivation may exist, is the present IP regime the best way of protecting the creator}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 s interests? 
\par 
\par Over forty years ago, the economist Robert Hurt dismissed the idea that authors are uniformly motivated to write }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 in the expectation of monopoly profits}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 , pointing to a wide range of other intentions, such as }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 the propagation of partisan ideas; notions of altruism [\'85]; desire for rec
ognition; and enhancement of one}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 s reputation.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\lang1033\langfe2057\super\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Robert M. Hurt (and Robert M. Schuchman), \lquote The economic rationale of copyright,\rquote  American Economic Review vol.56, no.1-2 (March 1966), p.425-426.}}}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  Obviously there are many more possibilities. Hurt was also 
able to show that in the nineteenth century, even without the benefit of copyright protection, British authors and their publishers were able to turn a profit in the United States book market for solid and conventional economic reasons.}{
\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\lang1033\langfe2057\super\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Hurt and Schuchman, op. cit.., p.421-432.}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par But does copyright protection have other advantages for creators; does it stimulate their creativity in other ways? The answer is probably no; there is a surprisingly venerable tradition of serious criticism by economists of inte
llectual property protection as a stimulus to innovation.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\lang1033\langfe2057\super\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 However, the modern reformist writings on IP of lawyers and non-economists such as e.g. Lawrence Lessig, Pamela Samuelson, Jessica Littman, James Boyle, or Siva Vaidhyanathan make little use of the inefficiency argument.}}}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
 In 1958 the economist Fritz Machlup wrote in a report to the US Congress that the patent system represented a victory for the lawyers over the economists. Machlup was not alone in believing that the copyright and patent systems are in fact }{
\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 a form of protectionism [...}{\insrsid12127175  }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 an] interference with a free market.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\lang1033\langfe2057\super\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
\chftn }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Dean Baker (Center for Economic and Policy Research, Washington DC), e-mail to Colin Darch, 8 January 2003.}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
 This critical tradition continues to the present day. In a recent a
nd widely reported paper published by the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, Boldrin and Levine argue that the copyright and patent systems reinforce monopoly control, keep prices high and actually }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 smother}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  future innovation.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\lang1033\langfe2057\super\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  \lquote Perfectly competitive innovation,
\rquote  Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, Research Dept. Staff Report no.303, March 2002, available at }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK http://minneapolisfed.org/research/sr/sr303.pdf }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000003000000068007400740070003a002f002f006d0069006e006e006500610070006f006c00690073006600650064002e006f00720067002f00720065007300650061007200630068002f00730072002f00730072003300300033002e007000640066000000e0c9
ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b6000000068007400740070003a002f002f006d0069006e006e006500610070006f006c00690073006600650064002e006f00720067002f00720065007300650061007200630068002f00730072002f00730072003300300033002e00700064006600000000000000154400000000000000
00000000000000437200680000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://minneapolisfed.org/research/sr/sr303.pdf}}}{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 [23 September 2003]. For a useful summary of reactions, both positive and critical, see Douglas Clement, \lquote Creation myths: does innovation require intellectual property rights?\rquote  Reason Online, March 2003, available at }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.reason.com/0303/fe.dc.creation.shtml" }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000003000000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0072006500610073006f006e002e0063006f006d002f0030003300300033002f00660065002e00640063002e006300720065006100740069006f006e002e007300680074006d006c000000e0c9
ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b6000000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0072006500610073006f006e002e0063006f006d002f0030003300300033002f00660065002e00640063002e006300720065006100740069006f006e002e007300680074006d006c000000000000004f7e31000000000000
0000000032ff000d6500280000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.reason.com/0303/fe.dc.creation.shtml}}}{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  [21 February 2003].}}}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  As Dean Baker, also an }{\insrsid8271367\charrsid2429221 economist}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  has pointed out, }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 calling patents intellectual property }{
\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 rights}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  does not change their logical status as a form of protectionism.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{
\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Dean Baker, Vaccine buying pools: is more protectionism the best route? Paper for conference Making New Technologies Work for Human Development, Tarrytown, NY, USA , 26 May 2001 
\par }{\field\flddirty{\*\fldinst {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 HYPERLINK http://www.cepr.net/publications/vaccine_2001_05.htm }{\fs20\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b6a00000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0063006500700072002e006e00650074002f007000750062006c00690063006100740069006f006e0073002f00760061006300630069006e0065005f00
32003000300031005f00300035002e00680074006d000000ff00000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.cepr.net/publications/vaccine_2001_05.htm}}}{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par }{\cgrid0\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 In fact, and counter-intuitively, it is widely recognised that in certain circumstances }{\cgrid0\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\cgrid0\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
reward can have adverse effects on intrinsic motivation and objective task performance}{\cgrid0\insrsid3098893\charrsid2429221 .}{\cgrid0\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\cgrid0\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\cgrid0\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 John C. McCullers, \lquote Issues in learning and motivation\rquote , in: M. R. Lepper and D. Greene (eds.), The hidden costs of reward (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1978), p.5.}}}{
\cgrid0\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  This has been a commonplace of research in such disciplines as social psychology and behavioural economics since 
at least the mid-1960s. Results have suggested that the functioning and impact of incentives is much more complex than most copyright commentators appear to suppose.}{\cs18\super\cgrid0\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\fs20\cgrid0\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 K. W. Spence, Behavior theory and conditioning, (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1956); K. O. McGraw, \lquote The detrimental effects of reward on performance: a literature review and a prediction model
\rquote , in: M. R. Lepper and D. Greene (eds.), The hidden costs of reward: new perspectives on the psychology of human motivation (Hillsdale NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1978), p.33-60.}}}{\cgrid0\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
 Zajonc, for example, researched ways in which the presence of an audience impacted on performance, and regretted in the 1960s that social facilitation, that is to say the impact of peoples}{\cgrid0\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\cgrid0\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  behaviour on the behaviour of others, was a }{\cgrid0\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\cgrid0\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 nearly completely abandoned area of research}{\cgrid0\insrsid11143905\charrsid2429221 .}{
\cgrid0\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\cgrid0\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Robert B. }{\cgrid0\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Zajonc, \lquote Social facilitation,\rquote 
 Science, vol. 149, no. 16 (July 1965), p.269-274;}}}{\cgrid0\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  This is clearly an area which requires serious further investigation if we are to question the basic assumptions of the dominant IP discourse.
\par }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 US researchers Boldrin and Levine believe that copyright, patents, and similar government-granted rights serve }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 only}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
 to reinforce monopoly control, with its attendant damage of inefficiently high prices, low quantities, and stifled future innovation. In }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 Perfectly competitive innovation}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
, a report published by the Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis, they argue that economic theory shows that perfectly competitive markets are entirely c
apable of rewarding (and thereby stimulating) innovation, making copyrights and patents superfluous and wasteful.}{\insrsid11274913 
\par }{\insrsid7750267\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7750267 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11274913\charrsid7750267 
The impact on the international division of labour
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par It is sometimes argued that the highly developed system of protection for IP is in itself
 likely to stimulate innovation and thus development in poor countries, presumably since most developed countries in fact have such systems. This may, of course, simply be an example of the }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 post hoc, propter hoc}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  fallacy at work, but there is nonetheless an extensive literature on the supposed positive causal relationship between IP protection and socio-economic development.
\par 
\par In this vein, a major report by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) on the relationship between IP rights and development was published in 2003. This text asserted that }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{
\cf1\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 innovation is heavily dependent on IPRs}{\cf1\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cf1\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 , while conceding that }{\cf1\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\cf1\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
the exclusionary aspects of strong IPRs can increase costs of follow-on innovation and imitation.}{\cf1\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\cf1\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  UNCTAD therefore came down in favour of }{\cf1\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{
\cf1\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 a balanced approach [\'85] with particular features of the system varying according to the level of economic development.}{\cf1\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 UNCTAD, Intellectual property rights and sustainable development (Geneva: International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development [ICTSD], August 2003), p.65}}}{
\cf1\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 However, this has not yet happened. As Ruth Gana bluntly asserts, }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 it is quite clear that one
 of the central motivations behind the TRIPS agreement was to target enforceability of foreign intellectual property rights in developing countries. As such, the global model of intellectual property protection imposed by the agreement is not a reflection
 of the need to encourage creativity or to promote the public welfare. Rather, the chief aim of the agreement is to secure from these countries and societies the full monopoly benefits that western intellectual property laws offer.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}
{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn 
}{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ruth L. Gana, \lquote }{\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Has creativity died in the Third World? Some implications of the internationalization of intellectual property\rquote 
 Denver Journal of International Law and Policy vol.24 (Fall 1995), p.141.}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  In other words, the purpose of imposing a globally harmonized IP system is f
undamentally to shore up the existing international division of labour, and has little to do with the encouragement of innovation in developing countries.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 {\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid7750267 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid7750267 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734264}
\hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 1.3}{\b0\fs28\dbch\af13\insrsid16018739 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1  }{\b0\fs28\dbch\af13\insrsid6515334\charrsid7750267 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 Why this }{\b0\fs28\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid7750267 
\hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 tendency is against the interests of creators and society in general{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734264}\hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1  
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 {\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 It is at least possible\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 that a consensus is beginning to emerge across a range of political opinions from right to left, to the effect that the balance of IP protection has shifted too far in favour of commercial rights holders. In an earlier section, we quoted the British esta
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 b\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 lishment weekly }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 The Economist}{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
, describing present copyright law as }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 worse than anachronistic in the digital age.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
 However, a case can be made that the tendency to privatization is pernicious for several }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 utilitarian}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  reasons, and that copyright repeal or ref
orm is necessary because present trends present }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 specific threats}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  to values and activities that are essential or important to general social well-being }{
\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 in the North}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  as well as in the South. In this section we shall focus on three of these threats \endash  to free speech, to scientific method, and to the creative process \endash 
 but we are aware that there may well be others.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13854589 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11274913\charrsid13854589 Current IP }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid10362080 l}{\f1\fs24\insrsid11274913\charrsid13854589 aws as a threat to free speech
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par As the copyright lobby \endash  in other words, advocates of wider, longer and more vigorous IP protection for content}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \endash 
 has extended its influence over law-makers, especially in the United States, it has succeeded in pushing for the criminalisation of acts that were previously not criminal, and has also succeeded in imposing a general }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
discourse of criminality}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  on the debate. It is true that the term }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 piracy}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
 has long been used to describe the production of unauthorized copies of literary works for sale without payment of royalties to the creators. However, it seems that the near-hysterical equation of }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
any kind of unauthorized copying}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  with }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 theft}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
, the presentation of such activities as constituting a threat to creativity itself (rather than primarily to corporate profits), and the almost 
vindictive pursuit of young consumers through the courts for offences such as downloading music files, have created a new and intimidating environment.
\par 
\par Whether this in itself constitutes a threat to free speech, it is of course too early to say. The holdi
ng of unpopular opinions, is, tautologically, unpopular. But there are some indications that voices may already have been silenced. In April 2001, for example, several computer scientists from Princeton and Rice universities in the United States withdrew 
a
 technical paper from a conference, under threat of action by a company that had challenged them to try to remove a digital marker from a music recording. The scientists had done this, but subsequently received a letter from the Secure Digital Music Initi
ative Foundation stating that }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
any disclosure of information gained from participating in the public challenge would be outside the scope of activities permitted by the agreement and could subject you and your research team to actions under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act.}{
\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid9715841\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 This was described by another scientist as }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 pure and simple intimidation.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{
\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  John Markoff, \lquote }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Scientists drop plan to present music-copying study\rquote 
, New York Times (27 April 2001).}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  Current US law forbids the discussion of methods used to circumvent technological protection of content, and according to the Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) has had }{
\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 a chilling effect}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  on free speech. As a result, says the EFF, some }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
online service providers and bulletin board operators have begun to ce
nsor discussions of copy-protection systems, programmers have removed computer security programs from their websites, and students, scientists and security experts have stopped publishing details of their research on existing security protocols. Foreign s
cientists are also increasingly uneasy about travelling to the United States out of fear of possible DMCA liability, and certain technical conferences have begun to relocate overseas.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 EFF, }{\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Unintended consequences: three years under the DMCA, v.1.0 (May 3, 2002), p.2.}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par More recently, according to newspaper reports in the United Kingdom, a man was allegedly fired from his job because he expressed }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 inappropriate}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  opinions on copyright issues on a television show.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Owen Gibson, \lquote }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
File-share defender fired over TV show\rquote , The Guardian (4 July 2005).}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
 The man, Alex Hanff, is in dispute with the MPAA over a now-defunct website, and was interviewed about this on a BBC news programme. The next day he was told that he might have jeopardised his employing company}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 s chances of securing government contracts, and was fired. The company stated that Hanff had }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
declared that he is opposed to copyright and intellectual property laws. Since much of our business is based around the protection of our copyright and intellectual property, we consider our dismissal of Mr Hanff entirely justified and appropriate.}{
\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid. }}}{\insrsid11274913 
\par }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10166911 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11274913\charrsid10166911 
The threat to scholarly communication and scientific method
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par Scholarly communication}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \endash }{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 in other words, access to the entire scientific record}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\endash  depends in part on what is effectively a global network of libraries sharing the burden of acquisition of the estimated 70,000 or so academic journals that are published around the world. Academic libraries share these resources primarily throu
gh a system of inter-library loans. If a researcher requires an article from a journal that is not in library A}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
s collections, staff members contact library B, which does subscribe, and get a photocopy of the article, which the researcher can keep. This is
 frequently done free of charge, as there is a principle of reciprocity at work, but in theory the researcher may have to cover the copying costs.
\par 
\par Journal publishers typically charge higher subscription rates to libraries than to individuals, precisely in order to recover what they see as lost sales from this kind of activity, which is, of course, perfectly legal under the fair dealing or fair use e
xemptions. Stan Liebowitz has termed this differential subscription charging }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 indirect appropriability.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  
}{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Liebowitz, \lquote Copying and indirect appropriability: photocopying of journals\rquote , Journal of Political Economy vol.93, no.5 (October 1985), p.945-957.}}}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  How
ever, with the advent of multi-layered protection of digital content, libraries that subscribe to electronic journals through access to a database sometimes find that they are forbidden by the terms of the access contract from sharing electronic or paper 
c
opies of articles with other institutions. The researcher then has no other resort than desist, or to turn to a commercial document delivery service to obtain a copy, perhaps at a transaction cost of US$8.00 or more. This is an active disincentive to enqu
iry, especially in poor countries where research funds are spread thin and $8 represents a significant chunk of change.
\par 
\par At another level, if the system of IP protection effectively closes off parts of the scientific record, not through censorship or formal
 barriers, but by making access unaffordable, it can be argued that the requirement of full disclosure is not being met.}{\insrsid11274913 
\par }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10166911 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11274913\charrsid10166911 
The threat to the creative process
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par In an interview published on Slashdot in May 2002, author Siva Vaidhyanathan graphically described how the uncritical application of IP rights through litigation had stifled an emerging musical form:
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid10166911 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\cs41\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid16338036 
in the early 1990s I noticed [that rap] music was changing [\'85] the underlying body of samples were getting thinner, more predictable, more obvious, less 
playful. I had heard that there had been some copyright conflicts in 1990 and 1991. So I suspected that lawsuits had chilled playful and transgressive sampling. I was right. The courts had stolen the soul. And rap music is poorer for it. We used to get fr
esh, exciting, walls of sound that were a language unto themselves. By the mid-1990s, all we got were jeep beats and heavy bass.}{\cs18\i\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Siva Vaidhyanathan on copyrights and wrongs, available http://interviews.slashdot.org/article.pl?sid=02/05/15/166220 [24 May 2002].}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 Vaidhyanathan argues that the US Digital Millennium Copyright Act replaced copyright }{\insrsid15870008\charrsid2429221 as }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 a fluid, open, democratic set of 
protocols under which you use what you need and face the consequences, with a cold }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 technocratic regime}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid3110763\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{
\insrsid3110763\charrsid2429221 .}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  
\par 
\par }{\insrsid10362080 \page }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid6172436 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid11274913\charrsid6172436 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734265}
1.4 Monopoly ownership and its consequences for artistic expression{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734265}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 The tendency towards the privatisation and monopo
lisation of our common cultural and scientific heritage may in fact not discourage creativity and invention }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 in itself}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
, since, as we have already argued, the motivations for creativity and invention are many and varied. Thus creators will likely continue to
 create, inventors to invent and performers to perform, so long as the financial investment required for those activities is relatively modest.
\par 
\par However, this does not mean that the tendency towards concentrated privatisation can be seen as a neutral or ev
en benevolent form for the social organization of cultural and scientific production. In fact, as Herbert Schiller has pointed out, private ownership in and of itself plays a key }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 ideological}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  role in the process of global domination by Western media conglomerates, for }{\insrsid5792390\charrsid2429221 which}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
 privatisation is an essential characteristic of an under-defined freedom: }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
the main constituent of a free press, it was unqualifiedly asserted, is that it is privately owned. Without private ownership of a newspaper, radio or television station, or other medium [\'85] there is no freedom of the press.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{
\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Herbert I. Schiller, Mass communications and the American empire (Boulder, Colorado: Westview, 1992), 2nd ed., p.23.}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par Indeed, the process of privatisation in fact produces a series of problems. }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 First}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
, success in the market becomes the primary determinant of worth as well as value, and the market can easily be manipulated. }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 Second}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 , cultural diversity suffers, especially if 
the number of media conglomerates is constantly shrinking, since there is little profit in specialist or minority tastes. }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 Third}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 , the business strategy of searching for block-busters 
\endash  cultural products such as movies or hit records that are consumed around the world in the same way \endash  leads ineluctably to the copying of previously successful formulae. }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 Fourth}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 , truly creative work can only succeed commercially by pure chance, since the less formulaic it is, the less likely it will be that it will attract serious marketing or promotion.}{\insrsid11274913 
\par }{\insrsid5792390\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5792390 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11274913\charrsid5792390 
The market as the primary determinant of worth and value
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par In a strictly commercial view of culture, if the investment needed for creating an artistic work is high, then it is only feasible to raise the necessary funds if distrib
ution is guaranteed, since otherwise no return is possible. In this situation artists are confronted by definition with the problem that the channels of distribution and promotion are effectively locked, open only for the happy few, the limited number of 
lowest-common-denominator artists who are selected by the owners of the communication media on the basis of past successes or likely future successes.
\par 
\par As David Crosby observed in an interview in March 2004, }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 when it all started, record companies \endash  and there were many of them, and this was a good thing \endash 
 were run by people who loved records. Now record companies are run by lawyers and accountants. [...] The people who run record companies now wouldn}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
t know a song if it flew up their nose and died.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  The way the music died: interview with David Crosby. Frontline, PBS, 4 March 2004. Posted at }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/music/interviews/crosby.html" }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 
{\*\datafield 
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690063002f0069006e00740065007200760069006500770073002f00630072006f007300620079002e00680074006d006c000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b9600000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e007000620073002e006f00720067002f0077006700620068002f0070006100670065
0073002f00660072006f006e0074006c0069006e0065002f00730068006f00770073002f006d0075007300690063002f0069006e00740065007200760069006500770073002f00630072006f007300620079002e00680074006d006c0000000000ff00000000000000005200650000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {
\cs19\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/music/interviews/crosby.html}}}{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
 Nowadays, record companies and small independent publishers have been taken over by large media corporations \endash  in Crosby}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 s words }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 big fish eat little fish.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  Inevitably, the link between the creator and the real decision-makers in the company is weakened or even disappears altogether: }{
\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 the bigger a company gets, the less it gives a damn about you.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid. }}}{
\insrsid11274913 
\par }{\insrsid5792390\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5792390 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11274913\charrsid5792390 Cultural diversity
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par The concentration of the financial and economic control of IP rights in the hands of an ever smaller number of private owners
 is not in the interest of artists for various reasons. For one thing, they miss the opportunity to communicate with diverse audiences to stimulate creativity. In addition, artists whose opportunities are restricted to a limited range of outlets miss out 
on other, unpredictable sources of income. 
\par 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15032556 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 For society in general, it is a catastrophe when artistic diversity \endash  concretely and actually created and performed 
\endash  does not in fact reach a range of different social groups, so that they can choose what they e
njoy. The media corporations effectively dictate what huge masses of people should see, watch, hear and enjoy. It is difficult for most people, who are ill informed about the existing and varied artistic landscape in their own societies, to escape the res
tricted offerings of the cultural conglomerates. For example, in a recent open letter to the recording industry published on the Internet, Glenn McDonald wrote }{\insrsid15870008\charrsid2429221 of }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 a French band I had to go to France to discover, and wasn}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 t that supposed to be the kind of thing I}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
m paying you for? While you were watching people vying on TV to be the next disposable idol, I was wondering what the rest of the world sounds like. Half the time it doesn}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
t sound all that different, sadly, because they}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 re probably watching those same miserable shows, but sometimes the small differences are enough to make me happy [...] your greed isn}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 t }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid15032556 even loyal to itself, so how can you hope for loyalty from anybody else?}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid15032556 \'94}{
\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid15032556 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Glenn McDonald, }{\insrsid8483307 \lquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 The war against silence}{\insrsid8483307 \rquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
. No.503: }{\insrsid8483307 \lquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Warnings and promises}{\insrsid8483307 \rquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . 2 June 2005. Available }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.furia.com/twas/twas0503.html" }{\lang1036\langfe2057\langnp1036\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e00660075007200690061002e0063006f006d002f0074007700610073002f00740077006100730030003500300033002e00680074006d006c0000000000000000000000000000ff00040000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
http://www.furia.com/twas/twas0503.html}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid15032556  
\par 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8398228 {\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid15032556 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Corporations are thus in a position to decide what is and what is not an }{
\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 artistic creation. They select a tiny fraction of actual \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
artistic production, and market it as the only work of interest, hampering cultural exchange and cross-fertilization, and preventing audiences from forming their own ideas or selecting works of art according to their personal tastes or circumstances. The 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 c\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 onglomerates, of course, also control the channels of communication, possible interpretations of works, and the limited range of public discours}{\dbch\af13\insrsid8398228 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 e.}{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228 
\par }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228 
\par }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 All this impedes the democratic exchange not only of ideas and opinions, but also of sentiments, kinds of pl\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
easure, or expressions of sadness. It is a characteristic of democracy that many voices can be heard, and many opinions expressed. The public domain in a democratic society is the mental and physical space in which the exchange of ideas and an open debate
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 around all sorts of questions can take place without interference. The arts are critical to democratic debate and to the process of responding emotionally and in other ways to life}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911\charrsid8398228 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 s questions. A diversity of forms of expression and channels of communicati
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 on is needed. People}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911\charrsid8398228 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 s opinions are formed }{
\i\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 inter alia}{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  by the books they read, the music they hear, the films they watch and the images they see 
\hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56  and not always at the rational level. The arts include all forms of entertainment and design and touch our hid\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 den emotions and drives, our perceptions and hopes, our desires and our very selves.

\par }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228 
\par Artistic creations from different parts of the world can have an important impact on groups of people within a particular society at a given moment in history. Neverthele
ss, it is important that a substantial part of artistic communication reflects, without being nostalgic, what is going on in any given community, including the virtual communities formed by the Internet. It would be a serious loss if none of the sentiment
s expressed in the arts was related to the }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228 specific}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228 
 conflicts, the desire for conviviality, the way people enjoy themselves, the specific kinds of humour or aesthetic that are found in a }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228 particular}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228  society.
\par 
\par Moreover, it is important that within any society a }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228 diversity of forms}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228 
 of artistic expression is created and distributed by diverse artists and creators. People are different; and what is more human than hoping to find forms of theatre, music, visual arts, literature or film that express adequately one}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid8398228 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228 s own confusions, feelings of delight or aesthetic tastes?}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Joost Smiers, Arts under pressure: promoting cultural diversity in the age of globalization (London: Zed Books, 2003), p.vii.}}}{\insrsid11274913 
\par }{\insrsid8398228\charrsid8398228 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8398228 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11274913\charrsid8398228 The 
copying of previously successful formulae
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid9112824\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 The business plan of the media corporations boils down to the search for a block-buster, a summer hit, a bestseller. Their almost complete inability to predict what will become popular in this way is clearly a maj
or impediment to their success. The strategy is to keep on churning out the records and the movies until one catches fire. Ironically, as Crosby says }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 every once in a while, there}{\insrsid10166911 
\rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 s an aberration, a crack in the pavement. Somebody [\'85] will have a hit [\'85 that}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
s] just so good, that it slides in between all of the meaningless, tasteless, cardboard cut-out crap.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Crosby, The way the music died. }}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par Crosby continues: }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 We spent time with a lot of people [\'85] and they}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 ll all say, }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 I}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 ve just found the new Norah Jones. I}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
ve got the new Norah Jones. You know, she sounds just like the new Norah Jones.}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  See, that}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 s the wrong thing. }{
\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 They}{\i\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 re out there looking for a clone of whatever}{\i\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 s at the top}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 .}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid. }}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  Other singers and musicians agree: }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 in times past, an A&R man [\'85] would help an artist to find songs, perhaps put them with specific musicians and arrangers. The role was creative and at its best, led to relationships which fostered the performer}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 s growth, over time. If a company had a great success with something, other people would look for someone to equal that success, sure, but they wouldn}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 t be looking for something identical, because what was appreciated was difference. If you couldn}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 t hear an artist}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 s sound as distinctive, who would want it?}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Barb Jungr, \lquote Why are pop singers so samey and sexless?\rquote , Spiked-Online, 27 June 2005. }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Available }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.spiked-online.com/Printable/0000000CAC21.htm" }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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320031002e00680074006d000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b7000000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e007300700069006b00650064002d006f006e006c0069006e0065002e0063006f006d002f005000720069006e007400610062006c0065002f00300030003000300030003000300043
0041004300320031002e00680074006d00000000000000000000000000000000000000340000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.spiked-online.com/Printable/0000000CAC21.htm}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid11274913 
\par }{\insrsid2049761\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2049761 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11274913\charrsid2049761 
The power of marketing and promotion
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2049761 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2049761 
\par }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2049761 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
The consolidation of power in the media conglomerates, through control over both content and channels of distribution, permits global marketing and promotion. A company with the capacity continuously to manufacture its cultural products in large quantitie
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 s\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 and to distribute them effectively to many parts of the world, is in a position to persuade huge numbers of people that what is on offer is something they want. It has the expertise to transform all those single products into }{
\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911\charrsid2049761 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \lquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2049761 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 not-to-be-missed experiences}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911\charrsid2049761 
\loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2049761 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
. It can upgrade its international operations to a privileged position by expanding horizontally and tapping emerging markets worldwide, by forging vertical alliances at all levels and in all branches of the cultural market, and attracting the necessary i
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 nvestment capital.
\par }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2049761 
\par }{\dbch\af13\insrsid11274913\charrsid2049761 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
This is the power to decide who will be a client, a viewer or a listener; but it is also power that extends to moments before this. It is the power to select a few artists and reject the rest; and to give those who are selected massive 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
distribution and promotion. These key decisions limit and, more often than not, effectively create, the field of cultural options that many people experience as the only ones. In order to want something else, a person needs a well-developed imagination an
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 d\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  a conviction that cultural life can offer more than what is currently and seemingly unavoidably on offer on a mass scale.
\par }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2049761 
\par The decisive question thus becomes: who has access to the communication channels of the planet, both digital and material? Who has a
ccess to the emotions of large numbers of people and to their disposable income? The question of evaluating the content, ethical standards and quality }{\insrsid15739143 of }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2049761 
what the cultural industries offer is secondary to the major issue of control by this oligopoly. Corpo
rations exercise control to steer creativity in certain directions, select particular artists, set up the means of seduction, prepare a favourable reception, and manufacture a range of experiences around a prioritised singer, writer, dancer, director, des
igner and his or her products and the broad range of gadgets inextricably surrounding their work.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2049761 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Smiers, Arts under pressure, p.28-29.}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2049761 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 {\b\f1\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid9647864 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid15732060 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734266}1.5 A}{\b0\fs28\insrsid11274913\charrsid9647864 
verage artist}{\b0\fs28\insrsid15732060 s and conglomerates }{\b0\fs28\insrsid11274913\charrsid9647864 cannot benefit from the same copyright system{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734266}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid9647864 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par We have already pointed to the need to question the uncritical acceptance of an Enlightenment discourse that permeates discussions on copyright, to the effect that the real purpose of the IP system is }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
to encourage creativity and innovation}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 . }{\insrsid4785787\charrsid2429221 
The Copy/South project strongly believes that more research is needed on the problem of the motivation of creators and innovators and on differentiation of reward, as well as on the question of who really benefits from the system (or to put it more crudel
y, }{\i\insrsid4785787\charrsid2429221 follow the money}{\insrsid4785787\charrsid2429221 ).}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid1143279 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 It would be na\'ef
ve to believe that an intellectual property rights system that is disproportionately influenced by the real interests of a handful of giant international media corporations (see below) is }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 also}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  designed to ensure that st
ruggling researchers, writers and artists can work free from money worries. It is clear that the system of rewards is determined by what is effectively a winner-takes-all search for a smash hit recording or a block-buster movie, in which the value of dive
rsity or of minority-taste markets are secondary considerations. Thus we can understand, for example, the US movie industry}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
s propensity to make second, third or even fourth sequels to successful films, which have come to be regarded as franchises, and are accompanied by the marketing of hugely profitable toy lines and }{\insrsid9509475 other branded product}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
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Musicians in Senegal and their earnings
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2910699 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid13918976 
\par }{\f66\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid13918976 Here are some statistics on the situation of musicians in Senegal in }{\f66\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 the year 2000: 
\par 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f3\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 \loch\af3\dbch\af0\hich\f3 \'b7\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls25\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid2910699 {\f66\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 \lquote Eighty percent of musicians in Senegal are unemployed or underemployed.\rquote }{
\cs18\f66\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006  }{\f66\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 One study estimates that US$600.00 is the average annual income for a musician in Senegal, though this figure is not substantiated and appears to be inflated. 

\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s15 \f3\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 \loch\af3\dbch\af0\hich\f3 \'b7\tab}}\pard\plain \s15\ql \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls25\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid2910699 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 In Senegal, African musicians who have international sales co
nstitute \lquote perhaps a dozen of the country\rquote s estimated 30,000 musicians.\rquote 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f3\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 \loch\af3\dbch\af0\hich\f3 \'b7\tab}}\pard\plain \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls25\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid2910699 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 \lquote 
The pressing need for short-term income often leads to musicians giving up their rights rather than licensing or some other sort of business/legal arrangement that would provide longer-term income.\rquote  
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2910699 {\f66\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 
\par The general approach of the World Bank and the World Intellectual Property Organisation is, essentially, to suggest the further inter-meshing of African musicians into the global copyright net. Though citing \'93the vision\'94 of Nashville, T
ennessee, USA as a model so that \'93African countries would create their own Nashvilles\'94 even intellectual property \lquote fundamentalists\rquote  are forced to admit that the results are likely to be modest. \lquote 
The idea (for Senegal) is to build an industry for the 30,000
 low-income musicians, recognizing that the measure of success would be a modest increase of earnings for each of them. One would hope that in this supportive artistic and business environment a few more of the 30,000 will make it big time,\rquote 
 conclude the authors of The Africa Music Project. And the message that intellectual property is central and necessary is one that is continually reinforced. The first element of their purported musicians\rquote 
 dream is strengthening IPRs, including their policing, and the goal of archiving/conserving of Senegal\rquote s musical patrimony is \lquote both to maintain music from generation to generation [obviously a laudable goal] and to reinforce the IPR system.
\rquote 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2910699 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 Sources}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 
: Frank J. Penna et al., \lquote The Africa Music Project\rquote  in: }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 Poor People\rquote s Knowledge: Promoting Intellectual Property in Developing Countries}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 
 (Washington DC: World Bank and Oxford University Press, 2004); and Alan Story, \lquote Intellectual Property Rights, the Internet, and Copyright\rquote , }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 Commission on Intellectual Property Rights Study Paper}{
\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006  no.5, (January 2002), available at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006  HYPERLINK "http://www.iprcommission.org/papers/pdfs/study_papers/sp5_story_study.pdf" }{
\f66\insrsid1708660\charrsid7878006 {\*\datafield 
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70006500720073002f007300700035005f00730074006f00720079005f00730074007500640079002e007000640066000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b9400000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0069007000720063006f006d006d0069007300730069006f006e002e006f00720067002f
007000610070006500720073002f0070006400660073002f00730074007500640079005f007000610070006500720073002f007300700035005f00730074006f00720079005f00730074007500640079002e00700064006600000000000000000000a00000000000}}}{\fldrslt {
\cs19\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 http://www.iprcommission.org/papers/pdfs/study_papers/sp5_story_study.pdf}}}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2910699 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 
\par }{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt1\dptxbx\dptxlrtb{\dptxbxtext\pard\plain \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10362080 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\f1\insrsid8483307\charrsid10362080 Musicians in Senegal and their earnings
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2910699 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid13918976 
\par }{\f66\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid13918976 Here are some statistics on the situation of musicians in Senegal in }{\f66\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 the year 2000: 
\par 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f3\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 \loch\af3\dbch\af0\hich\f3 \'b7\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls25\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid2910699 {\f66\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 \lquote Eighty percent of musicians in Senegal are unemployed or underemployed.\rquote }{
\cs18\f66\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006  }{\f66\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 One study estimates that US$600.00 is the average annual income for a musician in Senegal, though this figure is not substantiated and appears to be inflated. 

\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s15 \f3\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 \loch\af3\dbch\af0\hich\f3 \'b7\tab}}\pard\plain \s15\ql \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls25\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid2910699 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 In Senegal, African musicians who have international sales co
nstitute \lquote perhaps a dozen of the country\rquote s estimated 30,000 musicians.\rquote 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f3\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 \loch\af3\dbch\af0\hich\f3 \'b7\tab}}\pard\plain \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls25\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid2910699 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 \lquote 
The pressing need for short-term income often leads to musicians giving up their rights rather than licensing or some other sort of business/legal arrangement that would provide longer-term income.\rquote  
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2910699 {\f66\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 
\par The general approach of the World Bank and the World Intellectual Property Organisation is, essentially, to suggest the further inter-meshing of African musicians into the global copyright net. Though citing \'93the vision\'94 of Nashville, T
ennessee, USA as a model so that \'93African countries would create their own Nashvilles\'94 even intellectual property \lquote fundamentalists\rquote  are forced to admit that the results are likely to be modest. \lquote 
The idea (for Senegal) is to build an industry for the 30,000
 low-income musicians, recognizing that the measure of success would be a modest increase of earnings for each of them. One would hope that in this supportive artistic and business environment a few more of the 30,000 will make it big time,\rquote 
 conclude the authors of The Africa Music Project. And the message that intellectual property is central and necessary is one that is continually reinforced. The first element of their purported musicians\rquote 
 dream is strengthening IPRs, including their policing, and the goal of archiving/conserving of Senegal\rquote s musical patrimony is \lquote both to maintain music from generation to generation [obviously a laudable goal] and to reinforce the IPR system.
\rquote 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2910699 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 Sources}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 
: Frank J. Penna et al., \lquote The Africa Music Project\rquote  in: }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 Poor People\rquote s Knowledge: Promoting Intellectual Property in Developing Countries}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 
 (Washington DC: World Bank and Oxford University Press, 2004); and Alan Story, \lquote Intellectual Property Rights, the Internet, and Copyright\rquote , }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 Commission on Intellectual Property Rights Study Paper}{
\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006  no.5, (January 2002), available at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006  HYPERLINK "http://www.iprcommission.org/papers/pdfs/study_papers/sp5_story_study.pdf" }{
\f66\insrsid1708660\charrsid7878006 {\*\datafield 
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70006500720073002f007300700035005f00730074006f00720079005f00730074007500640079002e007000640066000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b9400000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0069007000720063006f006d006d0069007300730069006f006e002e006f00720067002f
007000610070006500720073002f0070006400660073002f00730074007500640079005f007000610070006500720073002f007300700035005f00730074006f00720079005f00730074007500640079002e00700064006600000000000000000000a00000000000}}}{\fldrslt {
\cs19\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 http://www.iprcommission.org/papers/pdfs/study_papers/sp5_story_study.pdf}}}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2910699 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 
\par }{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid7878006 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}\dpx2880\dpy-825\dpxsize5400\dpysize10595\dpfillfgcr255\dpfillfgcg255\dpfillfgcb255\dpfillbgcr255\dpfillbgcg255\dpfillbgcb255\dpfillpat1\dplinew15\dplinecor0\dplinecog0\dplinecob0}}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid1143279 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 The history of the relations between artists and
 recording companies, writers and publishers, and film-makers, actors and studios is replete with examples of exploitative contracts, bad faith, and bitter legal struggles for control of the estates of deceased artists whose works have turned out to be mo
n
ey-spinners. This has especially been the case when the creators have been from developing countries, or, in the case of the United States, when they have been members of disempowered communities, such as African-Americans. There are thus two aspects to t
his question, namely the relationship of the individual creator to the corporate rights holders }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 within the system}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
, and second, the way in which an undifferentiated Western system itself impacts }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 on cultures with differing ideas of the nature of authorship and of text}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 .
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12023418 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
In fact, royalties and other earnings from intellectual property rights constitute only a fraction of the income of most active professional artists, even in such markets as the United States, while in the developing world, they are almost cert
ainly completely insignificant. A recent survey of US jazz musicians showed that just only a little over half of them had earned their major income in the previous year from musical activity}{\insrsid12023418  }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
of any kind, let alone from the royalties from their intellectual property.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  See Joan Jeffri, \lquote Changing the beat: a study of the working life of jazz musicians\rquote 
, (San Francisco: National Endowment for the Arts, 2003).}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  Indeed, around two-thirds earned only around US$7,000 a yea}{\insrsid11828905\charrsid2429221 r }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
from music. In these circumstances, it is hard to accept the sincerity of the media corporations when they claim to be representing the interests of struggling creators. In any case, as Ruth Towse has cogently pointed out }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 royalty payments to all but the top artists are typically small and firms in the creative industries are typically large, making for a very unequal bargaining situation.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{
\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }
{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ruth Towse, }{\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Copyright and creativity in the cultural industries (Rotterdam: Erasmus University, 14 June 2001, unpublished paper).}}}{
\insrsid11274913 
\par }{\insrsid12740688 
\par }{\insrsid12740688\charrsid2429221 This inequality has
 often resulted in creators being cheated by the system while they were alive, and in their descendants, commonly not creators themselves, fighting bitterly over the estate after they are dead. For instance, a court case was recently heard in London about
 the IP rights to songs featured in the popular film and CD of the Cuban }{\i\insrsid12740688\charrsid2429221 Buena Vista Social Club}{\insrsid12740688\charrsid2429221 . The composers had been fobbed off with }{\insrsid12740688 \'93}{
\insrsid12740688\charrsid2429221 contracts [\'85] so cunningly contrived as to allow the publishers to get away with paying the composers practically nothing [\'85] at most, a few pesos and maybe a drink of rum.}{\insrsid12740688 \'94}{
\cs18\super\insrsid12740688\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }
{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  David Ward, \lquote }{\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Writers of Buena Vista hits were paid with a few pesos and rum, court hears\rquote , The Guardian (UK), 11 May 2005).}}}{
\insrsid12740688\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par Similarly, the South African Solomon Linda, author of }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 Wimoweh}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 , was a Zulu musician who wrote a song }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
that earned untold millions for white men but died so poor that his widow couldn}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 t afford a stone for his grave.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Rian Malan, \lquote Where does the lion sleep tonight?\rquote  }{\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Rolling Stone [date unknown, probably August-September 2002]. A
vailable from http://www.3rdearmusic.com/forum/mbube2.html [11 January 2003].}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
 The song has been a major hit several times, most recently when it featured in the Disney cartoon The Lion King, and is estimated to have earned, in fact, about US$15 million. But as Rian}{\insrsid3081440  Malan has pointed out,}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid3081440 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid3081440 
That Solomon Linda got almost none of it was probably inevitable. He was a black man in white-ruled South Africa, but his American peers fared little better. Robert Johnson}{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid3081440 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid3081440 
s contribution to the blues went largely unrewarded. Leadbelly lost half of his publishing to his white }{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid3081440 \lquote }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid3081440 patrons.}{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid3081440 \rquote }{
\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid3081440  DJ Alan Freed refused to play Chuck Berry}{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid3081440 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid3081440 s }{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid3081440 \lquote }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid3081440 Maybelline}{
\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid3081440 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid3081440  until he was given a songwriter}{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid3081440 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid3081440 s cut. Led Zeppelin}{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid3081440 
\rquote }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid3081440 s }{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid3081440 \lquote }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid3081440 Whole Lotta Love}{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid3081440 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid3081440 
 was nicked off Willie Dixon. All musicians were minnows in the pop-music food chain, but blacks were most vulnerable, and Solomon Linda, an illiterate tribesman from a wild valley where lions roamed, was totally defenceless against sophisticated predator
s.}{\cs18\i\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid3081440 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid. In 2006 and after a long legal battle, some type of financial settlement of this dispute was announced, although no figures were released. }}}{
\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid3081440  
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 There are numerous examples of ferocious struggles around disputed intellectual property rights in the form of creators}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
 estates. The Jimi Hendrix estate, for instance, valued at about US$80 million, remains the subject of litigation in what one report has described as }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 a long and bitter family feud}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  even though the singer and guitarist died intestate as long ago as 1970.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Brian Alexander, }{
\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \lquote Judge settles long family feud over Jimi Hendrix\rquote s estate\rquote , New York Times (25 September 2004).}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
 In an even more arcane dispute, the Walt Disney Company is locked in billion-dollar litigation over marketing rights to Win
nie the Pooh products with an elderly woman, Shirley Slesinger Lasswell who is not even related to A. A. Milne, but whose husband allegedly bought the rights in 1930. It should be clear that whatever result these contestations in fact have, it is much mor
e likely to be the enrichment of lawyers than the }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 encouragement of learned men to compose and write useful books.}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par The failure to question the globalisation of what are in fact culturally specific ideas of ownership, creativity and community is also a pro
blem. Some commentators have argued that in the process of spreading Western intellectual property law concepts, many non-Western peoples have been compelled to }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
make their claims using categories that are antithetical to their needs and foreign to their aspirations.}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Rosemary J. }{
\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Coombe, The cultural life of intellectual properties: authorship, appropriation, and the law (Durham NC: Duke University Press, 1998), p.241.}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
 This is an especially noticeable characteristic of much of the debate around IPRs and indigenous knowledge or }{\insrsid3761687\charrsid2429221 traditional knowledge which is discussed in Section 3.5.}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
 But this is not necessarily a one-way street. In a fascinating study of the appropriation of an Algerian Berber musical style, Jane Goodman has shown that the encounter of non
-Western societies with an imposed Western intellectual property regime is not always simply linear and destructive. She argues that the Kabyle people are producing }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
a markedly different understanding of the relationship between authorship and the public d
omain. Instead of being conceptualized as a neutral arena where unauthored and unowned materials are freely available to all, the notion of the public domain in [this] discourse is being evoked to constitute entirely new conceptions of authorship \endash 
 conceptions that are not opposed to the public domain but emerge from it.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Jane E. Goodman, \lquote 
Stealing our heritage?\rquote  Women\rquote s folksongs, copyright law, and the public domain in Algeria\rquote  Africa Today vol.49, no.1 (2002), p.88}}}{\insrsid11274913 
\par }{\insrsid2910699\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid2910699 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11274913\charrsid2910699 The }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid10362080 r}{\f1\fs24\insrsid11274913\charrsid2910699 ole of the }{\f1\fs24\insrsid10362080 b}{\f1\fs24\insrsid11274913\charrsid2910699 ig }{\f1\fs24\insrsid10362080 m}{\f1\fs24\insrsid11274913\charrsid2910699 edia }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid10362080 c}{\f1\fs24\insrsid11274913\charrsid2910699 orporations
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11274913 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par Today there are far fewer small, independent publishing houses, recording companies and film-makers than there used to be; even academic journals, which until the 1960s were primarily produced and distributed by scholarly societies and associa
tions, are now mostly published by large commercial enterprises. This process of consolidation and privatization of what was an extremely diverse field into half-a-dozen giant media corporations has been described as the }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 brutal decline}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  of trade and acade
mic publishing. Takeovers by multinational corporations have effectively destroyed excellent publishing houses both in Europe and in North America. The need to publish books, make records, or produce films that will quickly make large profits drives these
 giant corporations. }{\insrsid11828905\charrsid2429221 In publishing, their business plan consists essentially of gambling on celebrity names \endash  former presidents or aging rock stars \endash  who are paid huge advances to produce best-sellers. }{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 Naturally, such an environment marginalizes alternative voices, which are unlikely to be profitable, and may also be critical of the way the system is working.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 See especially the detailed account of the process in the field of publishing in Andr\'e9 Schiffrin\rquote s }{\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 The business of books: how international conglomer
ates took over publishing and changed the way we read (London: Verso, 2000).}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par When we speak of half-a-dozen media giants, this is almost literally the number of corporations that do in fact control global cultural and scholarly production, and which are a
mong the most vociferous and influential voices calling for tighter IP laws and better enforcement of their criminal provisions. In 2002, the main players consisted of six big groups \endash 
 AOL Time Warner, Vivendi, Viacom, News Corporation, Disney and Bertelsmann \endash  and one hybrid, Sony.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 See The Economist (25 May 2002). For earlier and similar reports, see also New Internationalist no.333 (April 2001), }}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
 These giant companies are not nimble \endash  they are slow to adapt to new technology for example, and if they fa
il to produce the required annual blockbusters, as might have been the case for the Hollywood film industry in mid-2005, they have no way to respond.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 See \lquote Hollywood crisis as summer hits dry up\rquote  The Guardian [London] (27 June 2005).}}}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par If market forces re
ally determined the fate of the media conglomerates, then we could be moderately confident that either they would have to adapt to the demands of the public, or they would break up. However, the media corporations spend large amounts of money and commit s
i
gnificant resources to making sure that the rules and the playing field are designed in such a way as to favour their continued survival and profitability. In a report published in 2000 by the Center for Public Integrity in Washington DC, it was shown tha
t, }{\i\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 inter alia}{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 , the conglomerates spent US$75 million on campaign contributions between 1993 and 2000. In the fo
ur years since 1996, they spent US$111 million on lobbying in Congress; there were 284 registered media lobbyists in 1999; and the media companies have taken 118 members of Congress and staff on 315 trips since 1997, at a cost of US$455,000.
\par 
\par Perhaps one of the best known examples of the way corporations are able to exert direct influence on the law-makers occurred in 1998, when the Walt Disney film company \endash 
 whose copyright on the presumably still-profitable Mickey Mouse cartoon character was to expire in 2003 \endash 
 successfully lobbied the US Congress for a copyright term law. Since the company had made campaign donations of over US$6 million the year before, they received a sympathetic hearing, and the act was duly signed into law, effectively extending copyr
ight protection forward another twenty years after the author}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 s death, from fifty to seventy years.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Some works get protection for up to 95 years. In the extensive secondary literature, for a useful summary account, see Chris Sprigman, \lquote }{\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 The mouse that ate
 the public domain: Disney, the Copyright Term Extension Act, and Eldred v. Ashcroft\rquote  Findlaw\rquote s Legal Commentary, Tuesday 5 March 2002, available at http://writ.findlaw.com/commentary/20020305_sprigman.html. }}}{
\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221  Subsequent court challenges to this law were unsuccessful. }{\insrsid7878006 
\par \page }{\insrsid11274913\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid10362080 \b\i\f1\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\i0\insrsid7878006 \page }{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid13321691\charrsid10362080 
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734267}SECTION }{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid4936081\charrsid10362080 2}{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid6751219  }{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid7603589\charrsid10362080 \endash  }{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid13321691\charrsid10362080 THE ECONOMICS OF GLOBAL COPYRIGHT: THE}{
\b0\i0\fs32\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid10362080 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1  NET CAPITAL FLOW FROM THE}{\b0\i0\fs32\dbch\af13\insrsid15862663\charrsid10362080 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1  GLOBAL PERIPHERY TO THE CENTRE}{
\b0\i0\fs32\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid10362080 {\*\bkmkend _Toc135734267}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13321691 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid15862663 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid15862663 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734268}
\hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 2.1 Introduction{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734268}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13321691 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 The world capitalist system is presently entering a phase, the earliest features of which had begun to emerge already in the late 1970s, }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 
\loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'93}{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 characterised by the elevation of information and its associated technology into the first division of key resources a
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 nd commodities. Information is a new form of capital.}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'94}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs36\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  G. Locksley, \lquote Information technology and capitalist development\rquote 
 Capital and Class no.27 (1986), p.91, quoted by J. Frow, \lquote Information as gift and commodity\rquote  New Left Review no.219 (1996), p.89.}}\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 In 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 this new epoch, information and knowledge are no longer available from what John Frow has termed the former }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'93}{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 interlocking ensemble of open }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \lquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 library}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 
\loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  systems with minimal entry requirements}{\dbch\af13\insrsid152985 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'94}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  but are rather }{\dbch\af13\insrsid152985 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'93}{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
managed within a system of private ownership where\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  access is regulated by the payment of rent.}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'94}{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs36\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Frow, Information, p.89.}}}{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\loch\af0\hich\af0\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
Since poor countries need access to patented information for technology transfer, and to copyrighted information for education and cultural production, the IP system that was locked\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 into place after the conclusion of the 1994 Uruguay round of the now superseded General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), can be seen as an attempt to freeze the international division of labour. Poor countries hold few patents and produce little lo
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 c\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 al knowledge. They are net importers of }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \lquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
information capital}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 on a massive scale, and the purpose of the emerging world IP regime is therefore to ensure that the net exporters \hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56  the countries of the industrialised North \hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56  continue to extend control over th
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 at capital through the exercise of monopoly rents, and thus to prevent any potentially competitive accumulation. 
\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 There is an often-cited maxim in the development literature to the effect that if you give poor people some fish, you feed them for a day, bu\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
t if you teach them how to fish, you feed them for a lifetime.}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs36\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Apparently a Chinese proverb sometimes attributed to Kung Fu-tse (Confucius).}}}{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 However, in our times, the epoch of extended copyright terms and the patenting of life forms and business method\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
s, a caveat becomes necessary: you feed them for a lifetime, provided they can afford to pay licence fees for what is likely to be a patented fishing technology. 
\par 
\par }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 To cite a concrete example, US industries, including the entertainment industry, appear to b
e doing extremely well, and it is logical that they should wish to secure their own profitability. But they have also succeeded in harnessing the US government and its foreign policy in the service of an expanding and aggressive assertion of the corporate
 }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 right}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 to patent or copyright any idea that might be commercially exploited, up to and including plants, animals and other life forms. The US has consistently sought to strengthen the global agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Righ
ts (TRIPS), introduced at the end of the Uruguay Round of GATT in 1994. The truth is, all IP rights are trade-related, and so all forms of content are under threat. Indeed, }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
the US government has made the rigorous enforcement of intellectual property rights a top priority of its foreign policy}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 as it attempts to use such international organizations as the WTO and WIPO to impose harmonization of local IP rules to US standards.}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\lang1033\langfe2057\super\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Kristin Dawkins, \lquote Intellectual property rights and the privatization of life,\rquote  Foreign Policy in Focus vol.4, no.4 (January 1999).}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 It is able to pursue this agenda because in the era of globalization, international capital is pretty much }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 free to pursue profit wherever it wishes and on whatever terms it can impose.}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\lang1033\langfe2057\super\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\lang1043\langfe2057\langnp1043\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Leys, op. cit., p.vi.}}}{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 If these international forums fail to reach agreement because of resistance by developing countries in defence of their own interests, then typically the United States resorts to negotiating a series of bilateral free trade agreements (FTA}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 s) which incorporate the key elements of TRIPS or TRIPS+, such as extended copyright terms, anti-circumvention measures and so on.
\par }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 There are, nevertheless, contradictions. How well are the Northern, and especially the US content industries actually doing? In th
e long term, the confident predictions are that they will be the dominant components of the global economy of the immediate future, as we have seen earlier. However, there have also been many wild claims of losses, mostly attributed to insufficiently fero
cious administration of IP legislation \endash 
 certainly not, in their view, to any problems with their ability to adapt to new environments or technology. It is undoubtedly true that the music recording industry (which despite the rhetoric is not the same thing 
as the music industry) has been experiencing a downturn, with a fall in 2002 of 7.2 percent in global sales of recordings. From this, analysts have extrapolated hypothetical }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 lost sales}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  worth US$4.7 billion by 2008, and have attributed this mainly to Internet file-sharing and other forms of }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 piracy}{\insrsid10166911 
\rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 .}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\lang1033\langfe2057\super\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Dan Milmo, \lquote Piracy costs will double in five years,\rquote  The Guardian, 23 September 2003, available at }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4759205-111163,00.html" }}{\fldrslt {\cs19\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0
,3858,4759205-111163,00.html}}}{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  [24 September 2003].}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 The problem is, as Stan Liebowitz and others have convincingly shown, that it is impossible to quantify the exact relationship between unauthorized copying and hypothetical purchasing behaviour by the c
opier, either in the case of file sharing or of cheap Chinese or Mexican }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 pirate}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 versions of CDs or videos. It is quite possible that the music recording industry would be in a slump in any case.}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\lang1033\langfe2057\super\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Stan Liebowitz, \lquote Policing pirates in the networked age,\rquote  Policy Analysis no.438, 15 May 2002, especially p.11 ff. Available at }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa438.pdf" }}{\fldrslt {\cs19\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa438.pdf}}}{
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  [24 September 2003].}}}{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Although it is hard both to collect and to interpret consistent data \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
about capital flows associated with the trade in intellectual property, Copy South believes that it is highly likely that, at present,}{\dbch\af13\insrsid16018739 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 
\lquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 there is a net flow of capital from the global periphery to the centre in the form of IP licence fees and royalty paymen\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 ts}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 . It is clear that this proposition is }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 broadly}{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  defensible. Such a flow would be entirely consistent with the negative balance of trade and payments between the per
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 iphery and the centre in other commodities. What we want to do, however, is to see if it is possible to quantify this in specific cases, such as the role played by the RRO}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 
\loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 s, in those countries that have them.}{\dbch\af13\insrsid14305830 
\par }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid152985 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid13321691\charrsid152985 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734269}2.2 Calculating copyright-relate
d capital flows }{\b0\fs28\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid152985 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 from the global periphery to the centre{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734269}\hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1  
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13321691 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 With a certain amount of ingenuity, it is possible to answer, at least indicatively, the question of whether there is\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 a net flow of capital from the global periphery to the centre in goods and services related to copyright (e.g. licensing fees, royalties). In addition, we know that there is a general trade imbalance between the North and the South, aside from debt-relat
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 e\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
d capital flows. There is little reason to suppose that things would be different in such an important area as the IP industries, especially when we consider the importance that the US especially attributes to concluding TRIPS agreements, bi-laterally if 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 n\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 ecessary, with its trading partners. In fact, c}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
ommentators and analysts from Daniel Bell in the 1970s, through Manuel Castells in the 1990s, to such current popularisers as John Howkins have all agreed that }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
the creative economy will be the dominant economic form in the twenty-first century}{\insrsid11349668\charrsid2429221 .}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\lang1033\langfe2057\super\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 See e.g. Daniel Bell, The coming of post-industrial society: a venture in social forecasting (New York: Basic Books, 1973); Manuel Castells, The information age: economy, society and culture (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996-1998), 3 vols.}}}{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Figures are available for the world trade in cultural goods, and the organised }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \lquote }{
\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 anti-piracy}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 movement also makes quantified claims of losses because of illegal (or at least unauthorised) copying of intellectual property. Such losses, while\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 they may well be exaggerated, indicate that rights-holders believe, probably with good reason, that there is a large market for cultural goods at a global level. Problems arise, however, in trying to disaggregate this data, or to break it down into discr
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 e\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
te categories. It is clear to us that case studies of such outflows from specific countries, or for particular sectors, if feasible, would be extremely useful in making the point that the global IP system costs poor countries much more than it benefits th
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 e\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
m, at least in trade terms. This section is therefore divided into two sub-sections, one on the world trade in cultural goods, very broadly defined, and one on possible uses in this debate of the so-called }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 
\loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \lquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 anti-piracy}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  statistics.}{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691 
\par }{\dbch\af13\insrsid152985\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid152985 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid152985 
\hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 The }{\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid10362080 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 w}{\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid152985 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 orld }{
\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid10362080 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 t}{\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid152985 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 rade in }{\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid10362080 
\hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 c}{\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid152985 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 ultural }{\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid10362080 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 g}{
\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid152985 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 oods
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13321691 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 In 2000, an official report by the }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)}{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 referred to a }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'93}{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 crippling lack of basic quantitative and qualitative indicators}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 
\loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'94}{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  regarding the relationship between culture and devel\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
opment. The authors of the same report attempted to quantify the worldwide trade in cultural goods, with the caveat that the real value of such goods often far exceeds their }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'93}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 declared value at customs.}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'94}{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 Thus, one print of a movie may have a particular valu\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 e }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 as an artefact}{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
, but its earning capacity when shown in a country}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
s cinemas may be exponentially greater. The UNESCO data show that the capacity to export cultural goods of many small and developing countries }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'93}{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 appear[s] to have shrunk}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'94}{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  over the period of \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
the 1980s and 1990s, and Copy South has no reason to suppose that this trend has been reversed. Indeed, the same UNESCO report goes on to point out that }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'93}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 the flows of trade in cultural goods are unbalanced, heavily weighted in one direction with few produc\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
ers and many buyers. There are great structural disparities both within and between the various regional trading blocks.}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \'94}{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\dbch\af13\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
Phillip Ramsdale, International flows of selected cultural goods, 1980-1998 (Paris: UNESCO, 2000), p.v. Cultural goods are defined b\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 y UNESCO\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56 
s Framework for Cultural Statistics (FCS) as including printed matter and literature (FCS 1); music (FCS 2); visual arts (FCS 4); cinema and photography (FCS 5); radio and television (FCS 6); and games and sporting goods (FCS 8).}}}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par Several key poi
nts emerge. First, this is a rapidly growing sector. Measured in dollars, world imports of cultural goods have nearly quintupled over the past quarter century, from a value of US$47.8 billion in 1980 to US$213.7 billion in 1998. However, as an overall }{
\i\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 proportion}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 of world trade, cultural goods have remained steady, increasing only from 2.5 to 2.8 percent. Second, and most significantly, developing countries accounted for 87 percent of all cultural goods imports in 1980, and for 78 percent in 1998. The value 
of these imports leapt from US$5.5 billion in 1980 to a staggering US$57 billion in 1998, a tenfold increase. 
\par 
\par The United States remains the main producer and the main consumer of cultural goods, as the UNESCO report emphasises. In another report entitled }{\i\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 Copyright industries in the US economy}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
, Stephen Siwek has attempted to quantify the importance of this sector according to three main indicators: value added to GDP, share of national employment, and lastly foreign sales.}{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Stephen E. Siwek, Copyright ind
ustries in the US economy: the 2002 report (Economists Incorporated for IIPA, 2002).}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par If we examine the value of US exports of such categories of cultural goods as recorded CDs and tapes, films and television programmes, computer software, and printed mat
erials (books, newspapers and magazines), it is clear that this is an extremely important sector for the well-being of the US economy. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tx1080\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11536999 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par }\trowd \irow0\irowband0\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2102\clshdrawnil \cellx1994\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx3974\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx5954\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \cell }\pard 
\qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid11536999 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 1991\cell 2001\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {
\fs20\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \trowd \irow0\irowband0\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2102\clshdrawnil \cellx1994\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx3974\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx5954\row }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 Software
\cell US$19.65 billion\cell US$60.74 billion\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \trowd \irow1\irowband1\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2102\clshdrawnil \cellx1994\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx3974\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx5954\row }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 Films\cell US$7.02 billion\cell US$14.69 billion\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {
\fs20\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \trowd \irow2\irowband2\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2102\clshdrawnil \cellx1994\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx3974\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx5954\row }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
Records and Tapes\cell n/a\cell US$9.51 billion\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \trowd \irow3\irowband3\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2102\clshdrawnil \cellx1994\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx3974\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx5954\row }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 Printed materials\cell n/a\cell n/a\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {
\fs20\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \trowd \irow4\irowband4\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2102\clshdrawnil \cellx1994\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx3974\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx5954\row }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 Total
\cell US$36.19 billion\cell US$88.97 billion\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \trowd \irow5\irowband5\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2102\clshdrawnil \cellx1994\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx3974\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1980\clshdrawnil \cellx5954\row }\trowd \irow6\irowband6\lastrow 
\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrnone \clbrdrb\brdrnone \clbrdrr\brdrnone \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth6062\clshdrawnil 
\cellx5954\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid15732060 {\insrsid15732060\charrsid2429221 Source: Siwek, p.3-4\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {
\fs20\insrsid15732060\charrsid2429221 \trowd \irow6\irowband6\lastrow \ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrnone \clbrdrb\brdrnone \clbrdrr\brdrnone \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth6062\clshdrawnil 
\cellx5954\row }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par In fact, from as early as the 1990s, the value of the export to the rest of the world of US copyright products (which include books, but are mainly entertainment commodities such as films, music and television programs) exceeded the total for clothes, che
micals, cars, computers and aeroplanes combined. In 1997, the value of all such products was $414 billion, according to one popular account.}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\lang1033\langfe2057\super\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Howkins, loc. cit.}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  The core copyright industries extend to }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
all industries that create copyright or related works as their primary product: advertising, computer software, design, photography, film, video, performing arts, music (publishing, recording and performing), publishing, radio and TV, and video games.}{
\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\lang1033\langfe2057\super\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Howkins, op. cit., p.xii-xiii.}}}{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  This list does not even begin to cover the economic value of patents and trademarks, which is considerable. }{\insrsid13321691 
\par }{\insrsid11536999\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid15732060 \page }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid11536999 Using }{\f1\fs24\insrsid12127175 d}{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid11536999 ata from }{\f1\fs24\insrsid10166911\charrsid11536999 \lquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid12127175 a}{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid11536999 
nti-}{\f1\fs24\insrsid12127175 p}{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid11536999 iracy}{\f1\fs24\insrsid10166911\charrsid11536999 \rquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid11536999  }{\f1\fs24\insrsid12127175 s}{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid11536999 
ources
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 In order to make the political argument for the expansion and extension of intellectual property rights, and for their increasin\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
gly severe enforcement, the copyright industries themselves frequently try to show how }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \lquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 piracy}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 and other activities have damaged their interests, and by implication, the interests of the countries whose economies they serve. Thus, unsubstantiated figures \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
for losses due to piracy come to be bandied about in newspaper reports and gradually acquire a probably unwarranted authenticity. The problem is, as research by Stan Liebowitz and others has shown, that there is no logically coherent way of demonstrating 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 t\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 he relationship between a specific number of, say, illegal music downloads from the Internet, and actual lost sales of specific CD recordings.}{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
See for example, Liebowitz, Policing pirates in the networked age (Washington DC: Cato Institute, 2002), especially p.11-14; and his Will MP3 downloads annihilate the record industry? The evidence so far (unpublished paper, June 2003).}}}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
{\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft3600\shptop48\shpright8460\shpbottom5665\shpfhdr0\shpbxcolumn\shpbxignore\shpbypara\shpbyignore\shpwr2\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt0\shpz0\shplid1027{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 202}}{\sp{\sn fFlipH}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFlipV}{\sv 0}}
{\sp{\sn lTxid}{\sv 131072}}{\sp{\sn shadowOpacity}{\sv 32768}}{\sp{\sn shadowOffsetX}{\sv 76200}}{\sp{\sn shadowOffsetY}{\sv 76200}}{\sp{\sn fShadow}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\shptxt \pard\plain 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tx720\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13321691 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\f1\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid8483307\charrsid15158234 
Chomsky on the Capital Outflow
\par }{\f66\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid8483307\charrsid6388596 
\par }{\f66\fs18\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid8483307\charrsid6388596 Noam Chomsky may not be far from the truth when he observes that American companies stand to gain $61 billion a year from the Third World on intellectual property rights, \lquote 
at a cost to the South that will dwarf the huge current flow of debt services from South to North.\rquote }{\fs18\lang7177\langfe2057\loch\af66\hich\af66\dbch\af13\langnp7177\insrsid8483307\charrsid6388596 \chftn }{
\f66\fs18\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid8483307\charrsid6388596  This is a calculation from the beginning of the nineteen nineties. Ten years lat
er, in 2003, this amount of money will be considerably higher, certainly also when other Western rights holding companies would be included in the calculation. A portion of this sum concerns (besides patents and trade marks) copyrights on cultural 
\lquote products\rquote 
. Which part this is, however, is difficult to calculate due to enormous differences in commercial statistics between countries. One may assume that the money poor countries must pay for copyrights is increasing, partly because Southern and Eastern count
ries feel pressure from the West to fight piracy. This places a drain on the already scarce resources of their police forces. Moreover, trans-national cultural conglomerates penetrate those countries more effectively with their entertainment and other cul
tural products. Consequently, those countries must transfer the scarce hard currency they have to Western and Japanese cultural industries.
\par 
\par }{\b\f66\fs18\insrsid8483307\charrsid6388596 Source:}{\f66\fs18\insrsid8483307\charrsid6388596  Noam }{\f66\fs18\expnd0\expndtw-2\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid6388596 Chomsky, \lquote Notes on NAFTA\rquote 
, in Kristin Dawkins 1993, NAFTA. The New Rules of Corporate Conquest (Westfield, NJ: Open Magazine Pamphlet Series, 1993) p.3.}{\f66\fs18\insrsid8483307\charrsid6388596 
\par }}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt8192\dptxbx\dptxlrtb{\dptxbxtext\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tx720\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13321691 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\f1\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid8483307\charrsid15158234 Chomsky on the Capital Outflow
\par }{\f66\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid8483307\charrsid6388596 
\par }{\f66\fs18\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid8483307\charrsid6388596 Noam Chomsky may not be far from the truth when he observes that American companies stand to gain $61 billion a year from the Third World on intellectual property rights, \lquote 
at a cost to the South that will dwarf the huge current flow of debt services from South to North.\rquote }{\fs18\lang7177\langfe2057\loch\af66\hich\af66\dbch\af13\langnp7177\insrsid8483307\charrsid6388596 \chftn }{
\f66\fs18\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid8483307\charrsid6388596  This is a calculation from the beginning of the nineteen nineties. Ten years lat
er, in 2003, this amount of money will be considerably higher, certainly also when other Western rights holding companies would be included in the calculation. A portion of this sum concerns (besides patents and trade marks) copyrights on cultural 
\lquote products\rquote 
. Which part this is, however, is difficult to calculate due to enormous differences in commercial statistics between countries. One may assume that the money poor countries must pay for copyrights is increasing, partly because Southern and Eastern count
ries feel pressure from the West to fight piracy. This places a drain on the already scarce resources of their police forces. Moreover, trans-national cultural conglomerates penetrate those countries more effectively with their entertainment and other cul
tural products. Consequently, those countries must transfer the scarce hard currency they have to Western and Japanese cultural industries.
\par 
\par }{\b\f66\fs18\insrsid8483307\charrsid6388596 Source:}{\f66\fs18\insrsid8483307\charrsid6388596  Noam }{\f66\fs18\expnd0\expndtw-2\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid6388596 Chomsky, \lquote Notes on NAFTA\rquote 
, in Kristin Dawkins 1993, NAFTA. The New Rules of Corporate Conquest (Westfield, NJ: Open Magazine Pamphlet Series, 1993) p.3.}{\f66\fs18\insrsid8483307\charrsid6388596 
\par }}\dpx3600\dpy48\dpxsize4860\dpysize5617\dpfillfgcr255\dpfillfgcg255\dpfillfgcb255\dpfillbgcr255\dpfillbgcg255\dpfillbgcb255\dpfillpat1\dplinew15\dplinecor0\dplinecog0\dplinecob0}}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
Nevertheless, the data produced by such sources as the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), the Motion Picture A
ssociation of America (MPAA), and the International Intellectual Property Alliance (IIPA) is useful if only because it reinforces our sense of the claims that are being made on poor countries by Northern rights-holders. Indeed, such claims apparently have
 a significant degree of government backing: the US International Trade Commission apparently believes that }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
because of an inadequate level of protection, many potential markets are unavailable to US manufacturers due to the proliferation of commercial piracy.}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
Christopher Johnson and Daniel J. Walworth, Protecting US intellectual property rights and the challenges of digital piracy (Washington DC: US International Trade Commission, March 2003), p.1 (US International Trade Commission. Office of Industries.
 Working Paper no. ID-05).}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  Indeed, the same source continues by stating that }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
the United States and other industrialized countries continue to urge many developing countries to live up to their new obligations by implementing the necessary legislation and enforcement mechanisms with respect to protecting intellectual property.}{
\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Johnson and Walworth, p.1. }}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  One source puts the 2002 losses to }{
\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 piracy}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  in the Middle East and Africa at US$211 million for films, US$160.5 million for recorded music, US$371.5 m
illion for business software, and US$150 million for }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 pirated}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  books.}{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  IIPA, }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
IIPA 2004 special 301 recommendations, IIPA 2002-2003 estimated trade losses due to copyright piracy, in millions of U. S. dollars, and 2002-2003 estimated levels of copyright piracy.
\par Middle East and Africa (IIPA, 2003).}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par To get a better sense of these claims, and of the kind of pressure that accompanies them, we can examine the case of South Africa}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
s alleged failure to enforce Northern standards of IP protection. In its 2002 Special 301 Report, the IIPA claimed that the }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
total estimated losses due to piracy of US copyrighted works in South Africa rose to $124.6 million in 2001.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 IIPA, 2002 special 301 report, [South Africa], p.552.}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  These losses, according to the claims of the IIPA, even }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 cost [South Africa] jobs, tax revenues, and the possibility of developing its creative community.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  In 2003, this same organization recommended that }{
\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 South Africa should be placed on the Priority Watch List}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 , owing to a sharp increase in levels of }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 audiovisual piracy}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 , referring specifically to imports of motion picture DVDs. IIPA also alleged that there was }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 corruption [\'85] within South African Customs.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 IIPA, 2003 special 301 report, [South Africa], p.271.}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par As far as the education sector was concerned, according to IIPA, book publishers suffered from }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 piracy}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 including unauthorized photocopying of complete textbooks and other materials on university campuses, to a value of US$14 million, an apparent drop over
 previous years that can be explained by exchange rate variations. However, the wealthier educational institutions have been forced to become }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 more copyright-conscious}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote 
}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  and in the case of the four institutions in Cape Town have appointed a joint copyright 
officer to deal with copyright permissions for copies of learning materials. So, although the data is not complete or totally reliable, we can draw a broad picture of the continuing capital flows in copyright-protected goods from the South to the North. }
{\insrsid13321691 
\par }{\insrsid11673215\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid13321691\charrsid15158234 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734270}2.}{\b0\fs28\insrsid14775811 3
}{\b0\fs28\insrsid13321691\charrsid15158234  From TRIPS to TRAP: Free Trade Agreement}{\b0\fs28\insrsid12127175 s}{\b0\fs28\insrsid13321691\charrsid15158234  and }{\b0\fs28\insrsid12127175 c}{\b0\fs28\insrsid13321691\charrsid15158234 opyright
{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734270}
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid7878006 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid13321691\charrsid7878006 
\par }{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid7878006 \'93}{\i\insrsid13321691\charrsid7878006 He who receives an idea from me, receives instruction himself, without lessening mine; as he who lights his taper at mine, receives light without darkening me.}{
\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid7878006 \'94}{\i\insrsid13321691\charrsid7878006  Thomas Jefferson
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
The birth and subsequent exploitation of the Agreement on Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights 1994 (TRIPS) is a fascinating story of how intellectual property- oriented industries of the Northern part of the world have sought \endash  and have l
argely obtained \endash 
 worldwide IP dominance. The recipe works in the following manner. First, build a strong global intellectual property alliance of large organizations from US, Europe and Japan. Next, bring the alliance to a slow boil by getting them to lob
by their respective national trade representatives to introduce intellectual property as a trade related issue in world trade talks such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), the precursor to the World Trade Organisation (WTO). If some sou
t
hern countries find the hastily cooked broth unpalatable at first, add sprinkles of a few concessionary ingredients. Cajole and even threaten them with severe consequences until they finally submit to trying the new dish. Keep adding spicy new toppings to
 the recipe every few years to avoid blandness. The best thing about this simple recipe is that the unsuspecting southern nation-states buy in to the promise that the latest offering is good for their own long-term health. In fact, without this }{
\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \'e0 la carte IP menu}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 , it is claimed that the Southerners would suffer from terrible under-nourishment of creativity and intellect.

\par 
\par The above metaphor may be strained, but it captures the essence of unfolding events as they have gathered momentum in global intellectual property-oriented policy-making over the last two decades. What this section of our dossier explores are the }{
\i\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 causes}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  of this urgent impulse towards change in IP policy. How have such ideas spread, at the cost of other options? Why is there a danger of act
ual creative deprivation for many southern as well as northern citizens after dining from such a limited and limiting IP menu?
\par 
\par First, why do we need an IP \endash  or more specifically a copyright \endash  policy cooked up in Northern countries, to be digested largely 
by the Southern hemisphere? As Northern countries, particularly the United States, have moved from a manufacturing base to a services base and thence to a knowledge base for their economies, it has become crucial to create new sources of revenue. Governme
nts can better shield such new revenue streams if the technologies and content that constitute the knowledge base \endash  such as proprietary software or entertainment products \endash  are more ruthlessly protected with a comprehensive and }{
\i\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 globally enforced}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  IP regime; in fact, such protection helps the copyright industries of the North to realize higher monopoly profits. 
\par 
\par The US has always had a surplus in its trade in IP products with the rest of the world, an advantage that it has tried to sustain quite ruthlessly. F
or instance, the US received a total of US$36.5 billion on its intellectual property exports in 1999, while paying out only US$13.3 billion to other countries. No other country in the world even comes close to a surplus on IP products of more than $23 bil
lion.}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Story, Alan (2002), \lquote Copyright: TRIPS and International Educational Agenda\rquote 
, in Drahos, P, and Mayne, R, (ed.) Global intellectual property rights: knowledge, access and development (Palgrave Macmillan), p. 131. }}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  Many other Northern countries, such
 as Germany, France, and Canada actually have sizeable IP deficits; these countries may perhaps be hoping that their IP fortunes will reverse in the future.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
The copyright industries}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 , specifically, }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 are responsible for some 5% of the GDP of the United States}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 , and }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 they gather in more international revenues than automobiles and auto parts, more than aircraft, more than agriculture.}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  See Jack Valenti (2002), A clear present and future danger, 2002; Open Democracy, }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.opendemocracy.net/debates/issue-8-40.jsp" }}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 www.opendemocracy.net/debates/issue-8-40.jsp}}}{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 , accessed 9 March 2004.}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  The IP industries in general and the copyright industries in particular are therefore of tremendous imp
ortance to the well-being of the economies of the North, and exercise significant domestic influence.
\par 
\par It is evident that Northern countries, dependent on such knowledge industries as the media, entertainment, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, telecommunicat
ions or software, feel an urgent financial impulse to achieve strategic global trade dominance in those commodities.}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Pharmaceutical companies are organised into the International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers and Associations [IFPMA], the e
ntertainment industry into the Recording Industry Association of America and The Motion Pictures Association of America, and software enterprises into the Business Software Alliance.}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 However, why should it necessarily follow that the same policies must therefore hold true for the rest of the world, the Southern part?}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid16018739 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 Must copyright standards for the rest of the world necessarily mimic those of the North, or should the South decide appropriately what its domestic needs are using the vehicle of free trade ag
reements? What is actually happening is that important policies adopted in one part of the world are increasingly becoming a de-facto standard for the rest; and this \endash  with far reaching implications \endash 
 is being achieved in three specific ways.
\par 
\par To exercise global influence, the first and the most durable tactic}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
of Northern copyright and other knowledge-based industries is to make regular and significant contributions to campaign financing, so that }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 appropriate}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  candidates are elected to the US Congress or ot
her legislature. Essentially, in this way, large corporate organizations can capture the regulatory structure of their national governments. The US media, entertainment, pharmaceutical, bio-technological, and tele}{\insrsid11083346 -}{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 communications industries are among the mo
st generous contributors to the campaign coffers of US elected officials. The drug industry contributed a total of $230 million to financing campaigns in the 1999-2000 US elections cycle. The communications industry ranked fourth in generosity}{
\insrsid10107416 ,}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  with $133 million. The health industry ranked seventh with $96 million among industry contributors.}{\cs18\super\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Centre for Responsive Politics, 2004.}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 Once elected, such officials may be expected to respond rather amiably to the most oblique requests for national or international policy favours: indeed, the requests may not even have to be spelled out.
\par 
\par Second, once in place, the regulatory capture of Northern governments including European ones became a decisive force in shifting global priorities at crucial trade venues such as GATT or the WTO. The successful introduction of TRIPS during the 8th GATT r
o
und between 1986 and 1994 was a masterly stroke in re-ordering global IP priorities. In one swift move, intellectual property rights were transformed from an obscure national concern of a handful of governments, into a global trade-related issue. Once TRI
PS fell within the WTO}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 s ambit, threats and even sanctions could be and were imposed by Northern nations against countries without }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
adequate}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  IP protection policies. This was a sweeping victory. The inclusion of TRIPS within the WTO framework in 1995 went a
 long way towards realigning and harmonising the intellectual property rights of most of the 152 WTO member states towards US standards. All member countries, particularly those in the South, could now be compelled to abide by the restrictive terms of TRI
PS, and all within a strict time frame. 
\par 
\par Third, the introduction of TRIPS was merely the beginning of a grand new strategy of seeking ever higher levels of harmonization of the copyright laws of the Southern countries with those existing in the US and Euro
pe. The new weapon in the US trade arsenal was the skilful use of free trade agreements for achieving such ends; they are agreements which are quite unlike multilateral institutional mechanisms. The easy reproduction of copyrighted products worldwide, bot
h digital and non-digital, (also called }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 piracy}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
) became a rather convenient argument for copyright industries to ratchet up the demands for more protective policies. }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 Piracy}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 or theft of in
tellectual property in developing countries, it is claimed repeatedly without fail, leads to considerable loss by the owners and producers of intellectual property from the developed world. The International Trade Commission claims that foreign }{
\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 piracy}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  of United States IP costs the country approximately $40 to $60 billion per year.}{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Johnson, C., \lquote Global copyright protection and the challenge of digital piracy\rquote 
, 2003; USITC Report 3640, ftp.usitc.gov/pub/reports/ittr/PUB3640.PDF \endash  Retrieved on July 10, 2004.}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 It must be noted that the domestic copyright industries of United States and western European countries were during the nineteenth century pirating products with considerable enthusiasm, something that was quite deliberately overlooked by their governm
ents.}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Ben-Atar, Doron, Trade Secrets: Intellectual Piracy and the Origins of American Industrial Power (New Haven, Conn. USA: Yale University Press, 2004).}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 Free Trade Agreements

\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7878006 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
\par In what appears as yet to be the most breathtaking method to impose US co
pyright policy on the rest of the Southern world, the US is now putting great emphasis on free trade agreements. The pace for increasing the volume and intensity of global trade on intellectual property through the WTO is apparently slowing down due to in
t
ernal differences between member countries. This has led to an increase in the number of bilateral and pluri-lateral (more than two) preferential agreements; at the same time, the world share of such non-multilateral (i.e. unilateral) and preferential tra
de has been steadily increasing over the last 10 years.}{\cs36\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Crawford, Jo-Ann and Fiorentino, Roberto V., \lquote The changing landscape of Regional Trade Agreements, Discussion Paper No. 8, WTO, Geneva, 2005.}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  These agreements, involving two or more countries, could
 be regionally specific, as say within Asia, or geographically divergent, as say between Singapore and the United States. They are also referred to as regional trade agreements if geographically proximate or more generally as free trade agreements [FTA] a
s the idea is to free cross-border trade from the encumbrances of tariff duties or restrictive rules.
\par 
\par The total number of free trade agreements in force in 2005 was 170 and another 90 were in the pipeline. FTA activities have recently intensified all over 
the world. Just how intense is revealed by the fact that all but one member of WTO, namely Mongolia, is engaged in some form of trade agreement or another.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
It is expected that by 2008 the number of FTAs in existence may be close to 300. There are broadly three trends apparent in these trade agreements: 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\insrsid11624215\charrsid12127175 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid13321691\charrsid7878006 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 1.\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls40\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid7878006 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid7878006 
countries across the world, including those traditionally reliant on multilateral trade liberalization, are increasingly making FTAs the centre of their trade policy; 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid13321691\charrsid7878006 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 2.\tab}FTAs are in many cases establishing trade regimes that go beyond the scope of multilateral trade agreements; 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid13321691\charrsid7878006 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 3.\tab}preference is being given on reciprocal trade agreements between developing and developed countries.}{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid7878006 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid.}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid7878006 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7878006 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 So if sluggish growth of WTO is not delivering the desired trade
 results, then many Southern countries, ever anxious to increase their exports, are keen to take advantage of preferential treatment}{\insrsid5077643  of }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
their Northern counterparts. There is also the matter of not being thought as being }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 left behind}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
 in the competitive race for limited Northern markets. In the bargain, however, the Southern states are conceding a lot more than they presently realize.
\par 
\par The FTAs are clearly seen as opportunities by countries like the United States to raise and harmonise IP standards worldwide
. Facing opposition in multilateral forums like the WTO, the US is opting instead for the free trade path to achieve its ends. The approach is basically to use a US-oriented IP template and impose its preferred standards on others through these FTAs. The 
IP issues in each FTA are negotiated according to the template set by the last agreement, with the same provisions included in each, regardless of whether they address some }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
problem}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  in the negotiating partner country.}{\cs36\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Weatherall, Kimberlee, \lquote Locked in: Australia gets bad intellectual property deal\rquote , Policy, Vol. 20, No. 4, Summer 2004-05.}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  For example, the free }{\insrsid15298483 trade }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 agreement be}{\insrsid14878573 tween}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  the US and Jordan requires the latter country to change its domestic patent statutes so as to allow business method patents; only the most na\'ef
ve could conclude that this}{\insrsid14878573  change was made at the request}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  of the Jordanians or that Jordanian-based}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
companies will be the main beneficiaries of such a controversial type of patent.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
\par 
\par Now let}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 s examine two specific elements 
of copyright related free trade agreements. These features cut right across many preferential agreements between the United States and other countries. The first is with respect to the introduction of the relatively new Digital Millennium Copyright Act (D
MCA) and the second is the extension of the copyright term to life of the author plus 70 years.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid12127175\charrsid12127175 The }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 DMCA and }{\f1\fs24\insrsid12127175\charrsid12127175 i}{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 ts }{\f1\fs24\insrsid12127175\charrsid12127175 w}{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 orldwide }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid12127175\charrsid12127175 i}{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 mplications}{\cs18\f1\fs24\super\insrsid13321691\charrsid11624215 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 For more on this topic, see Section 4.8 }}}{\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid11624215 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par The DMCA is an overly restrictive copyright law produced in response to World Intellectual Property Organization}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
s (WIP0s) passage of the Copyright treaty signed in 1996 by nearly one hundred and sixty countries. All signatory countries of the copyright tr
eaty are expected to legislate such acts within their national jurisdictions. The 1998 US DMCA is a good example of a legislation many US copyright-oriented industries seek to impose on the rest of the world. The terms of DMCA go well beyond the general r
e
commendations made by WIPO. Having failed to persuade nations worldwide to adopt US- style copyright regulations via the WIPO Copyright Treaty, the US government has included many stringent requirements of DMCA along with others in its Free Trade Agreemen
ts (FTAs) with Jordan, Singapore, Chile, Morocco, Australia, CAFTA, Bahrain and Oman. It is now seeking to include similar provisions in its current multilateral free trade negotiations with 33 countries in the Americas}{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  See FTAA & Bilateral FTA Resources: www.eff.org/IP/FTAA/ [accessed December 04, 2005]}}}{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  ; such negotiations, it should be noted, are not going well in the rapidly changing political climate across this continent. 
\par 
\par The DMCA can prevent any copying or access to works, even copying that would be completely excused under copyright law as a }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 fair use}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  or }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 fair dealing}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
. DMCA is unbalanced as it basically provides considerable power to the copyright content provider at the cost of the consumers}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  access to information, especially with reference to their }{
\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 fair use}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 rights. The owners can now legally put a technological lock around a work in order to control unauthorized access, or copying, or performance or display of the work. In such a case, it is illegal to both
 circumvent that technological lock, for example those that exist with }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 copy protected}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 CDs, or to supply any product, service or technology that is designed to help anyone else circumvent that lock. Any person }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 privately}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  engaged in the development or distribution of circumvention technology for digital media, which should be allowed under copyright}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 s }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }
{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 fair use}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  doctrine, is at risk, however, of being held criminally or civilly liable. Further, digital or internet enabled access can be even more tightly re
stricted with embedded software codes and shrink-wrap and click-wrap licensing agreements. 
\par 
\par Millions of copy-protected discs are already in circulation worldwide. One cannot use such copy-protected discs on MP3 players, although making an MP3 copy of a CD for personal use is still deemed as }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 fair use}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 . The greater irony is that, unlike the earlier generation videotaping machines which allowed users to }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 time shift}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  or copy content for later viewing (e.g. on their VCR), a company that distributes tools to }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 repair}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  such unusable CDs \endash  and hence restoring to consumers their }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 fair use}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13254658  rights \endash  }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 will run the risk of lawsuits under DMCA}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 s ban on circumvention tools and technologies.
\par 
\par DMCA can also be used to create potential censorship by permitting copyright owne
rs to force internet service providers (ISP) to remove any material from the Internet and the World Wide Web if the copyright owner believes the material to be infringing in nature.}{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  See US supreme court judgment on: MGM Studios Ltd. }{
\lang1030\langfe2057\langnp1030\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 ET AL Versus Grokster Ltd. ET AL, June 2005. http://fairuse.stanford.edu/MGM_v_Grokster.pdf [retrieved on December 10, 2005]}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 This clearly has consequences for the political freedoms that the Internet gives people around the world. The copyright owners can enforce removal of }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 adverse}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 material by simply sending the ISP a written legal notice stating, in good faith, that the material is infringing. If the ISP fails to quickly remove access to such alleged infringing material, the provider itself can be held liable for any infrin
gement that might be found. It is quite evident that most ISPs will rather err on the side of removing the claimed }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 infringing}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 material rather than challenge the copyright owner with its platoon of well-heeled lawyers. 
\par 
\par The Digital Copyright Act can thus
 begin to mediate access to cyberspace for people living in other countries. The Internet is a medium that is easily accessible from an increasing number of parts of an increasingly wired world. At the same time, it should be remembered that a high densit
y of information traffic originates from the United States. The English language continues to dominate the Internet with approximately 78% of all web sites and 96% of e-commerce web sites. 
\par 
\par The lengths to which the free trade agreements are going to achiev
e their objective are quite astounding. Even the language of TRIPS comes across, by comparison, as permitting somewhat more flexibility. For example, Article 11 of the WIPO Copyright Treaty merely requires parties to provide }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 adequate legal protection and effective legal remedies against the circumvention of effective technological measures that are used by authors}{\insrsid5768510\charrsid2429221 .}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  The equivalent provision in the Australian Free Trade Agreement, however, explains this point in inordinate details for two and a half single-
 spaced, typed pages. It defines in most circumscribing terms what technological measures are, what acts relating to them are proscribed, what exceptions may be provided, and even when and how new exceptions can be created, and what criteria we can apply 
in creating them.}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Kimberlee, op cit.}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 The Central American Free Trade Act (CAFTA) calls for civil and criminal penalties to punish anyone who }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 circumvents}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 copy-protection technology or }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 provides}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 such tools to anyone else. Like the DMCA, it would cover everything from DeCSS (a tool which removes copy-protection from DVDs) to products that do the same for e-books.}{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  McCullagh, Declan, Copyright lobbyists strike again, August 1, 2005, http://news.co
m.com/2010-1071_3-5811025.html [retrieved December 04, 2005].}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  
\par 
\par Future copyright policy will, in all likelihood, be drafted with the US looking over the shoulder of its trade partners. The ever powerful US lobby groups will clearly oppose, directly and th
rough their trade representatives, any implementations they consider less than optimal from their point of view. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid12127175\charrsid12127175 Extension of c}{
\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 opyright }{\f1\fs24\insrsid12127175\charrsid12127175 t}{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 erm}{\f1\fs24\insrsid12127175\charrsid12127175 s}{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  through FTAs}{
\cs18\f1\super\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  For more on this topic, see Section 4.2}}}{\f1\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par The other example within free trade agreements to be highlighted here is the clearly }{\insrsid14878573 in}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
explicable extension of the copyright term to life of the author plus 70 years. All FTAs involving US have this clause as a requirement. It is a direct replication of the US Son}{\insrsid15298483 n}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
y Bono Copyright Act of 1998 which extended the copyright hold for an additional 20 years, to a total of 70 years after the death of an author. It was made possible largely due to the intense lobbying of the Walt Disney Corporation (US Son}{
\insrsid12220068 n}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 y Bono Copyright Act, 1998) since the character Mickey Mouse was about to come into the public domain.
\par 
\par It is almost impossible to find in the copyright literature any precise analysis of just how the extension of the copyright term to life of the author + 70 years (or even 50 years according to the Berne Convention,
 one part of TRIPS) is related to any acce}{\insrsid12220068 ptable economic logic. Do such }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
long years of protection actually provide additional time for the content owners to recover their marketing or financial expenses and, if so, can one actually provide some calculation
 of the expected returns for each of the next 50-70 years in a row? Quite clearly not. The extensions appear more like ploys for preventing copyrighted artefacts from coming back quickly enough into the public domain. 
\par 
\par The standardisation of the copyright term and scope, which incorporates a basic minimum level of protection as well as preventing the exclusion of certain copyright expressions, is a result of the Berne Convention that all TRIPS/WTO members must also sign
 
up to claim their due eligibility. This clearly has huge implications for most Southern countries which need greater access to cheap and abundant information for their national development. If copyrighted products take longer and longer to reach the publi
c domain, then inexpensive access to knowledge will be denied to a whole generation of people. It is important to recognize that a nation}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
s copyright policy is a pivotal source determining the forms of control that can be exercised over access to published 
information. The vibrancy of the public domain is under clear threat from new forms of copyright protection envisaged by powerful copyright oriented industries of the United States. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 Conclusion
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7878006 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
\par The protective muscle of US copyright industries are alterin
g the information landscape through free trade policy intervention over copyright term, the scope and basic character of encrypted software, and the anti-circumvention technologies. All former protections envisaged under most copyright laws are currently 
under even graver threat with the shift to the digital domain. Stallman suggests that copyright}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
s role has now been completely reversed. It was set up to let authors restrict publishers }{\insrsid12220068 and f}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 or the sake of the general public. Digital technology has transfor
med it into a system to let publishers restrict the public in the name of the authors.}{\cs36\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Stallman, R., Let\rquote s share, 2004; Open Democracy, www.opendemocracy.net/debates/article-8-40-26.jsp [retrieved March 09, 2004]}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  
\par 
\par Developed western countries have literally resorted to blocking or knocking away the development}{\insrsid6951451  of }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
IP strategies of developing countries, strategies that were once themselves used by the former in moving up the developmental ladder}{\insrsid9856055\charrsid12127175 .}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid9856055\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Ha-Joon Chang, Kicking away the Ladder: Development Strategy in Historical Perspective (London: Anthem Press, 2002)}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  The blocking of initiatives generally happens through the developed world}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 s considerable control over international institutions and the promise of access to devel}{\insrsid6951451 oped markets in return for more }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
stringent IP policies negotiated through FTAs. 
\par 
\par Can developing countries that are }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 lower down}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
 on the ladder of technological growth take advantage of other, more open, paradigms of knowledge distribution? The struggle 
for the future shape of important aspects of copyright policy is being addressed principally through the contrived elements of the FTAs. So while copyright is being strengthened, the need for a corresponding }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 copyduty}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  to sustain the importance of the publ
ic domain is being gradually weakened. It is clear that if the public domain is not constantly replenished, there is considerable danger of it becoming unfertile}{\insrsid15212567\charrsid12127175  \endash }{\insrsid16018739\charrsid12127175  }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 and hence not able to inspire new generation}{\insrsid5456992 s}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  of copyrighted work}{\insrsid15212567\charrsid12127175  \endash }{\insrsid16018739\charrsid12127175  }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 and becoming }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 off limits}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  to those who need to use its riches.

\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid15732060 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734271}2.4 R}{
\b0\fs28\insrsid13321691\charrsid10578910 eprographic collecting societies and their projected growth in the South{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734271}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par The main purpose of a reproduction rights organisation (RRO) is to collect copyright royalty fees from users on
 behalf of right holders, both publishers and authors. Such fees are mostly generated through licensing schemes between RROs and user groups; educational institutions are the predominant licensees and the principle source of revenue for RROs. Hence RROs d
eserve particular attention in any assessment of copyright and educational issues in the South. 
\par 
\par In 2001, there were a total of 33 RRO national organisations, mainly in the developed world. Three RROs existed at that time in Africa: the Dramatic, Artistic 
and Literary Rights Organisation (Pty) Limited (DALRO) in South Africa, Zimcopy in Zimbabwe, and Kopiken in Kenya (IFRRO website). One of the key functions of national RROs is to ensure the collection and transmission of copyright fees to foreign right ho
lders and, to facilitate such distributions, national RROs are members of the International Federation of Reproduction Rights Organisations (IFRRO).}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  The website of the IFRRO is: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.ifrro.org/" }}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.ifrro.org/}}}{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 A number of bodies, in addition to the IFRRO and individual RROs in the developed world, are encouraging the further spread of the RRO system and philosophy, including to least developed countries. 
\par 
\par For example, at its centenary meeting in April 1996 in 
Barcelona, Spain, the 25th Congress of the International Publishers Association passed a resolution calling for the creation of RROs in every country of the world. WIPO copyright education programmes in poorer countries and various World Bank reports also
 
encourage, in the context of improving or building copyright administrative systems and enforcement regimes, the establishment of national RROs within these countries. The question is: in the current copyright and publishing conjuncture, should the RRO mo
del be exported to Africa (and the South generally)? 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
The DALRO record in South Africa 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7878006 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
\par The experience of the South African RRO, DALRO, is instructive. According to the latest}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 available }{\insrsid12797770\charrsid12127175 (2001) }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
financial date posted on the DALRO website, DALRO distributed to national (i.e. South African) rights holders a total of }{\insrsid13719662\charrsid12127175 \'80}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
73,545.89 in reprographic (essentially photocopying) royalty fees during its 1999 financial year. By contrast, DALRO distributed a total of }{\insrsid13719662\charrsid12127175 \'80}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
136, 523.07 to foreign RROs (and hence to foreign right holders) in 1999. The main source of DALRO revenues was the educational sector, particularly universities and technikons. During the same period, DALRO received a total of }{
\insrsid13719662\charrsid12127175 \'80}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 19,802.62 from other (i.e. non-South African) RROs for the reprographic copying done in these countries (and presumably for distribution to SA right}{\insrsid9780047 s}{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  holders; this is split between publishers and authors; the percentage s}{\insrsid9780047 p}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 lit is unknown, though certainly the UK}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 s Copyright Licensing Association distribution percentages greatly favour publishers over authors). 
\par 
\par What these figures reveal is that distributions from SA reprographic users to foreign holders were more than 2.5 times higher than the total distributions made to South African right holders by DALRO.}{
\cs36\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Here is the math (slightly rounded): 73,000 \endash  20,000 = 53,000; 137/53 = 2.5. }}}{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  As is well known, South Africa is a much richer country than any other in Africa and has a significantly larger and more robust publishing and
 education sector (the latter being where many authors work.) But even here, as the above figures show, the RRO system leads to a highly unequal balance of payments to the advantage of richer countries and reinforces existing patterns of dependency. If a 
fully functioning and active RRO were to be established in any other African county, especially a least developed country, the financial inequality would be even greater; such an African RRO would primarily \endash 
 if not exclusively---become a royalty collector for foreign publishers and authors headquartered in rich countries. 
\par 
\par At one level, for the establishment of a national RRO to make economic sense, that is, to facilitate some level of inter-jurisdictional equality in distributions, a country must, if it i
s required to pay significant royalty revenues, also have a significant publishing and publishing export sector. For example, the UK}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 s CLA received a total of \'a3
3.6 million from non-British RROs in 1998-1999; in that same year, the CLA distributed \'a33.5 mill
ion to non-British right holders. In the 1999-2000 financial year, the US Copyright Clearance Center, which represents 9600 US publishers and tens of thousands of authors, collected US$79 million and distributed an estimated US$57 million to its own natio
nal right holders.}{\cs36\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Interestingly, the posted CCC\rquote 
s documents do not state how much was distributed to non-US right holders.}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  The conclusion: the publishing and copyright picture in a country such as Senegal or Zimbabwe bears no relationship whatsoever to 
that existing in the UK, the US, or even South Africa. The RRO model simply does not fit in less developed countries; it is an artificial transplant from a qualitatively different publishing climate. In fact, there is so little enthusiasm for the RRO mode
l in other parts of Africa that Kenya}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 s Kopiken or Zimbabwe}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
s Zimcopy, the two other African RROs and both established in 1995, did not make a single financial reprographic collection during their last financial year according to documents published on their websites.}{
\cs36\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Repeated attempts to contact both organisation and discuss their operations were unsuccessful.}}}{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  
\par 
\par If the above analysis is not sufficient reason to reject the idea of exporting the RRO model to least developed countries of Africa (or elsewher
e in the South), the experience with the RRO model in developed countries should provide further warning. The so-called }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 blanket licences}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 
\rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  that RROs usually offer to users do not include such key educational requirements as the distribution of non-profit student course packs \endash  extra royalties are added for such materials \endash 
 and the users, such as schools and universities, bear most of the expensive transaction costs of administering such schemes.}{\cs36\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Alan Story, 
}{\insrsid8483307 \lquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 The Heck with HECA: a critical analysis of the UK\rquote s Higher Education Copying Accord}{\insrsid8483307 \rquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
, in K. Brunstein and P.P. Sint, eds. Information property, intellectual property and the new technologies (Austrian Computer Society, Vienna, 2002). As a result of the 13 
December 2001 decision of UK Copyright Tribunal, the CLA will now be required to include the provision of course packs within the blanket licence it offers to British universities and colleges. See more in this dossier, see section 4.6.}}}{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  Devoting already s
carce educational resources within poor countries to the administration of such schemes on behalf of foreign right holders simply does not make economic sense; such schemes have extremely high transaction costs. }{\insrsid9639705\charrsid12127175 
\par 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\insrsid9639705\charrsid12127175 Table: RRO Activity in the Developing World
\par }\trowd \irow0\irowband0\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx1596\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx3300\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx5004\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx6709\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\pard 
\qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid1462733 {\fs18\insrsid9639705\charrsid7878006 Country\cell Name\cell Incorporated\cell 1st collection\cell 1st distribution\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\b\fs20\insrsid9639705\charrsid12127175 \trowd \irow0\irowband0\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx1596\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx3300\clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx5004\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx6709\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid1462733 {\fs18\insrsid9639705\charrsid7878006 Argentina\cell CADRA\cell 2002\cell none reported\cell None reported\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\b\fs20\insrsid9639705\charrsid12127175 \trowd \irow1\irowband1\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx1596\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx3300\clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx5004\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx6709\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid1462733 {\fs18\insrsid9639705\charrsid7878006 Chile\cell SADEL\cell 2003\cell none reported\cell None reported\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\b\fs20\insrsid9639705\charrsid12127175 \trowd \irow2\irowband2\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx1596\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx3300\clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx5004\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx6709\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid1462733 {\fs18\insrsid9639705\charrsid7878006 Colombia\cell CEDER\cell 2000\cell none reported\cell None reported\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\b\fs20\insrsid9639705\charrsid12127175 \trowd \irow3\irowband3\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx1596\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx3300\clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx5004\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx6709\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid1462733 {\fs18\insrsid9639705\charrsid7878006 Jamaica\cell JAMCOPY\cell 1998\cell 2001\cell None reported\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\b\fs20\insrsid9639705\charrsid12127175 \trowd \irow4\irowband4\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx1596\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx3300\clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx5004\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx6709\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid1462733 {\fs18\insrsid9639705\charrsid7878006 Kenya\cell KOPIKEN\cell 1995\cell 2000\cell None reported\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\b\fs20\insrsid9639705\charrsid12127175 \trowd \irow5\irowband5\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx1596\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx3300\clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx5004\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx6709\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\trowd \irow6\irowband6
\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx1596\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx3300\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5114\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid1462733 {
\fs18\insrsid9639705\charrsid7878006 Malawi\cell COSOMA\cell No information available\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\b\fs20\insrsid9639705\charrsid12127175 \trowd \irow6\irowband6
\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx1596\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx3300\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5114\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\trowd \irow7\irowband7\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb
\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx1596\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx3300
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx5004\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx6709\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid1462733 {\fs18\insrsid9639705\charrsid7878006 Mexico\cell CEMPRO, SGC\cell 1998\cell 2002\cell 2001 (small)\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\b\fs20\insrsid9639705\charrsid12127175 \trowd \irow7\irowband7\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx1596\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx3300\clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx5004\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx6709\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid1462733 {\fs18\insrsid9639705\charrsid7878006 Nigeria\cell REPRONIG\cell 2003 (operating)\cell none reported\cell None reported\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\b\fs20\insrsid9639705\charrsid12127175 \trowd \irow8\irowband8\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx1596\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx3300\clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx5004\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx6709\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid1462733 {\fs18\insrsid9639705\charrsid7878006 Singapore\cell CLASS\cell 1999\cell 2002\cell None reported\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\b\fs20\insrsid9639705\charrsid12127175 \trowd \irow9\irowband9\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx1596\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx3300\clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx5004\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx6709\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid1462733 {\fs18\insrsid9639705\charrsid7878006 Trinidad\cell TTRRO\cell 1995\cell none reported\cell None reported\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\b\fs20\insrsid9639705\charrsid12127175 \trowd \irow10\irowband10\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx1596\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx3300\clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx5004\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx6709\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid1462733 {\fs18\insrsid9639705\charrsid7878006 Uruguay\cell AUTOR\cell 2004\cell none reported\cell None reported\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\b\fs20\insrsid9639705\charrsid12127175 \trowd \irow11\irowband11\ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx1596\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx3300\clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx5004\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx6709\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid1462733 {\fs18\insrsid9639705\charrsid7878006 Zimbabwe\cell ZIMCOPY\cell 1995\cell none reported\cell None reported\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\b\fs20\insrsid9639705\charrsid12127175 \trowd \irow12\irowband12\lastrow \ts11\trqc\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb
\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx1596\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx3300
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1704\clshdrawnil \cellx5004\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx6709\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1705\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\insrsid9639705\charrsid12127175 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7878006 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 Denise Nicholson}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
s extensive writings on the situation in South Africa}{\cs36\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Available in Story, CIPR study, pg. 81. }}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  further ex
pose the severe access problems such schemes create, especially for poorer students; the problems that illiterate persons face because of the RRO model (and restrictive copyright legislation) should also be noted. Finally, as textbooks make up approximate
l
y 90 per cent of book publishing in Africa and as such texts are relatively inexpensive, wide-scale photocopying and distributing of infringing copies of African-produced textbooks is not a serious problem today. It would be difficult to reproduce photoco
pied texts more cheaply than the original; }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'93}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 it costs more to photocopy books than buy books}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'94}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
, said Ghanaian publisher Richard Crabbe in a 2001 interview. As Crabbe also noted, his Ghanaian-based company depresses its prices further to a break-even basis for
 export to some of the poorest African countries. So the creation of a national RRO would not significantly increase the royalty revenues paid to African-based publishers for the photocopying (or other reproductions) of their own publications.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 Exporting t
he RRO model to the South 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7878006 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
\par Despite this, the IFRRO is rapidly acting on the 1996 International Publishers Association resolution, noted above, to create RROs in every country of the world; the main (almost exclusive) growth area in the intervening years h
as been in countries of the South. On the other hand, some of these national organisations still remain essentially }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 shells}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 , operated by a minimum number of personnel \endash  perhaps only a single person \endash  and with little public presence. Most have made few or 
no financial distributions and their financial records (at least those which are publicly available) do not permit any detailed assessment of their actual operations as is possible with more developed agencies such as South Africa}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 s DALRO. Only one of the 
above new RROs has received any fees from RROs in another country; in its last completed financial year, CLASS (Singapore) received externally collected payments totalling }{\insrsid13719662\charrsid12127175 \'80}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
26.89. Still, WIPO is an active supporter of RROs and the organisational }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 shells}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
 that exist today could, in time, become more significant earners primarily for Northern rights holders. DALRO gives an example. In the case of DALRO, it made payments to other worldwide RROs (primarily for distribution to Northern publishers) of }{
\insrsid13719662\charrsid12127175 \'80}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 404,573 in its last completed financial year, compared to }{\insrsid13719662\charrsid12127175 \'80}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
136,523.07 in 1999; this represents a nearly 300 per cent increase in less than 5 years. In its last completed financial year, DALRO received }{\insrsid13719662\charrsid12127175 \'80}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
25, 534.22 from other RROs, mostly, one assumes, for distributions to SA rights holders; this represents an increase of about }{\insrsid13719662\charrsid12127175 \'80}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
6, 000 over the same period. Conclusion: the disparity in the North/South revenue flow is increasing. 
\par 
\par At the same time, there is a growing and co-ordinated PR campaign by international collective management organisations to propound the benefits of their services and systems; one example is the slick 2004 pamphlet, }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 
\lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 From artist to audience}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 , jointly produced by the IFRRO, the International Confederation of Societies of Authors and Composers 
(CISAC) and WIPO.}{\cs36\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Available at : }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.ifrro.org/papers/booklet_wipo_cisac_ifrro.pdf" }}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.ifrro.org/papers/booklet_wipo_cisac_ifrro.pdf}}}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
 What is particularly significant is the emphasis this pamphlet puts on the benefits of collective management systems for countries of the South; of the 13 countries featured in }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 From artist to audience}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 , seven are located in the South (Nigeria, Malawi, }{\insrsid4028002 South}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
 Africa, Senegal, Singapore, Jamaica, and Mexico). In this pamphlet, Nigeria}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 s REPRONIG, which has yet to make a single distribution, is given equal billing \endash 
 in terms of space and layout \endash  with the Copyright Clearance Center Inc. of the USA which collects millions of US dollars annually.
\par 
\par An impressionistic sense suggests that RROs currently
 have little presence in the collection of revenues in the South from Internet-based print revenues. It appears as if individual publishers collect such fees themselves through the use of technological protection measures (TRMs) in combination with digita
l rights management systems (DRMs). 
\par 
\par At present, the revenues collected and distributed by RROs are far less than the revenues collected by various music-based collecting societies. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 Creating }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 copyright cops}{\f1\fs24\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7878006 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
\par RROs are primarily a creation of the photocopying era and constitute what one commentator calls }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 a }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 mass use}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  (as opposed to a market use e.g. the direct purchase of a book) of copyrighted works.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{
\cs36\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Paul Edward Geller, \lquote Reprography and other processes of mass use,\rquote 
 30 Journal of the Copyright Society USA, 21, 1990. }}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  As this use is virtually }{\i\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 sub rosa}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 , it is }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'93}{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 difficult for rights-holders to know where to start defending their interests.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'94}{\cs36\b\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
\chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid. }}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175  There still is a significant amount of unauthorised use in the South and the IFRRO, as well as organisation}{\insrsid4352330 s}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
 such as WIPO, are}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 putting forward three messages that will rely heavily on representatives of users and those tasked within organisations of the South to police copyright (a.k.a. }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 copyright cops}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 ). 
\par 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s42 \f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid13321691\charrsid7878006 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard\plain \s42\qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls41\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid7878006 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid7878006 respect copyright and su
pport authors (with little mention of the main beneficiaries, publishers);
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s42 \f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid13321691\charrsid7878006 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}
it is your responsibility (not that of rights holders) to pay the steep transaction costs involved in copyright clearance; 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s42 \f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid13321691\charrsid7878006 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}it is your duty to enforce copyright laws. 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7878006 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
\par The RRO 
model has the potential to create significantly increased revenues for rights holders, without any increased expenditures. As mentioned above, it is users who bear the principal administration costs of such schemes. The expansion of this model to the Sout
h
 is an attempt to enmesh such countries into the copyright web of commodification of knowledge and will, in time, generate higher revenues, primarily for Northern rights holders. In the North, both the term of copyright protection and the fees paid by exi
s
ting RRO licensees are based, at least rhetorically, on what is considered the appropriate level of incentive that is required for the production of creative works. If copyright policy makers in the North were consistent, the increased revenues paid by us
ers in the South \endash  for the use of the very same works produced in the North and distributed in the South at no cost to rights holders }{\insrsid861408 \endash  }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid12127175 
would lead to a conclusion that the copyright term and RRO fees in the North should be reduced. It is not a development we should anticipate. 
\par }{\insrsid16084572 
\par }{\insrsid861408 
\par }{\insrsid861408\charrsid12127175 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid16084572 Collective }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid8477255 m}{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid16084572 anagement and Collecting Societies for }{\f1\fs24\insrsid8477255 m}{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid16084572 usic and }{\f1\fs24\insrsid8477255 s}{
\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid16084572 ound }{\f1\fs24\insrsid8477255 r}{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid16084572 ecordings
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par Such organisations are increasingly important on a global scale and in the South; although comparative data is not availabl
e, we can safely conclude that they generate significantly greater revenues than reprographic rights organisations (due to the widespread dissemination of music and the greater market base \endash 
 print RROs primarily collect from educational institutions. In addition, many music-based cultural industries make collections directly as is discussed in Section 3 of the dossier.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid8477255 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid8477255 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734272}
\hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 2.5 How much of this capital flow is related to copyright?{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734272}\hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1  
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Even analysts wri\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
ting for publications sponsored by the World Bank, and thus likely to be defenders of the status quo, concede that the costs of running a national IP system according to international conventions, especially in the forms taken after the 1994 changes to tr
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 a\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 de rules, is enormously expensive for developing countries, and results in a net outflow of capital. 
\par 
\par }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 Complying formally with the TRIPS Agreement imposes enormous costs on developing countries. Not only do they have to set up industrial property registrie
s that many of them did not have before, but they also have to comply with the extensive enforcement obligations of the agreement (articles 41\endash 61), which include border measures (articles 51\endash 
60) and criminal sanctions to combat piracy and counterfeiting (a
rticle 61). The high economic cost of compliance is, of course, compounded by the fact that these countries are net importers of intellectual property. In hard currency terms, then, compliance with the TRIPS Agreement brings about an outflow of foreign cu
rrency from developing countries.}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Coenraad J. Visser, \lquote 
Making intellectual property laws work for traditional knowledge\rquote  in J. Michael Finger and Philip Schuler (eds.), Poor people\rquote s knowledge: promoting intellectual property in developing countries (Wash
ington DC: World Bank, 2004), p.208, emphasis added.}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par The question then becomes whether these }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 enormous costs}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 are recouped later by some hypothetical future benefits in the form of innovation. But another key question is how the net capital outflow is co
nstituted, since such information would allow us better to evaluate claims of future benefit. Clearly the operations of the RROs, discussed in the preceding section, offer us some indication of how one mechanism operates in a relatively small sector with 
regard to copyright-related payments.
\par 
\par }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 In the case of the South African organisation, DALRO, the }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
Dramatic, Artistic and Literary Rights Organisation (Pty) Ltd., we have quite detailed figures for the amounts collected and distributed, published on the IFFRO
 website (already mentioned above). From these figures we can see that a very significant proportion of the fees collected have been distributed abroad.
\par }{\insrsid13321691 
\par }{\insrsid861408 
\par }{\insrsid861408\charrsid2429221 
\par }\trowd \irow0\irowband0\ts11\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trftsWidth1\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2988\clshdrawnil \cellx2880\clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1844\clshdrawnil \cellx4724\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1845\clshdrawnil \cellx6569\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1845\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\pard 
\qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid15236841 {\fs20\insrsid13321691\charrsid15236841 FY 2002-2003\cell }{\fs20\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid15236841 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Amount in Euros\cell 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Amount in Rand\cell \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Percentage\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \trowd \irow0\irowband0
\ts11\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2988\clshdrawnil \cellx2880\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1844\clshdrawnil \cellx4724\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1845\clshdrawnil \cellx6569\clvertalt\clbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1845\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {
\fs20\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid15236841 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Domestic fees collected\cell }\pard \qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid15236841 {
\fs20\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid15236841 \cell \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 R7,918,722.52\cell \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \trowd \irow1\irowband1
\ts11\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2988\clshdrawnil \cellx2880\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1844\clshdrawnil \cellx4724\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1845\clshdrawnil \cellx6569\clvertalt\clbrdrt
\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1845\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {
\fs20\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid15236841 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Fees remitted from abroad\cell }\pard \qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid15236841 {
\fs20\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid15236841 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 E25,534.22\cell \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 R222,944.93\cell \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {
\fs20\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \trowd \irow2\irowband2\ts11\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trftsWidth1\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2988\clshdrawnil \cellx2880\clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1844\clshdrawnil \cellx4724\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1845\clshdrawnil \cellx6569\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1845\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid15236841 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Total income\cell }\pard 
\qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid15236841 {\fs20\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid15236841 \cell \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 R8,141,667.45\cell \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 100 %\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \trowd \irow3\irowband3\ts11\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2988\clshdrawnil \cellx2880\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1844\clshdrawnil \cellx4724\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1845\clshdrawnil \cellx6569\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1845\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid15236841 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Domestic fees distributed in SA
\cell }\pard \qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid15236841 {\fs20\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid15236841 \cell \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 R2,148,387.80\cell \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 26.4 %\cell 
}\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \trowd \irow4\irowband4\ts11\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2988\clshdrawnil \cellx2880\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1844\clshdrawnil \cellx4724\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1845\clshdrawnil \cellx6569\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1845\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid15236841 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Domestic fees sent abroad\cell 
}\pard \qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid15236841 {\fs20\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid15236841 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 E404,573.02\cell \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 R3,532,416.01\cell 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 43.4 %\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \trowd \irow5\irowband5\ts11\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2988\clshdrawnil \cellx2880\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1844\clshdrawnil 
\cellx4724\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1845\clshdrawnil \cellx6569\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1845\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid15236841 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
Total distribution\cell }\pard \qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid15236841 {\fs20\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid15236841 \cell \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 R5,680,803.81\cell \cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \trowd \irow6\irowband6\ts11\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2988\clshdrawnil \cellx2880\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1844\clshdrawnil \cellx4724\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1845\clshdrawnil \cellx6569\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1845\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\trowd \irow7\irowband7\lastrow \ts11\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2988\clshdrawnil 
\cellx2880\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1844\clshdrawnil \cellx4724\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth3690\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid15236841 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
Administrative overheads\cell \cell }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid15236841 {\fs20\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid15236841 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Not specified\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 {\fs20\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \trowd \irow7\irowband7\lastrow \ts11\trgaph108\trleft-108\trbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrr
\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrh\brdrs\brdrw10 \trbrdrv\brdrs\brdrw10 \trftsWidth1\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2988\clshdrawnil \cellx2880\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth1844\clshdrawnil \cellx4724\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth3690\clshdrawnil \cellx8414\row }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {
\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 But these amounts are relatively small and specific mainly to the higher education sector. I}{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 n order to answer the question usefully an
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
d comprehensively, we would need systematically to quantify several factors. First of all, we should be able to specify with some accuracy what the total capital outflow in payments for IP rights is, from a specific country or set of countries, and in a s
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 p\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 ecified time series. Ideally, this should also be related to the total contribution of the }{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \lquote }{
\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 creative economy}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  or the }{
\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \lquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 copyright industries}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{
\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  to that country}{\dbch\af13\insrsid10166911 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
s GDP over the same period\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
, and would include payments attributable to licenses for foreign patents, trade marks, and other forms of intellectual property. There is in fact data available for such an exercise, but there are some serious drawbacks, as Keith E. M}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid12658866 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 askus has pointed out\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 ,}{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\dbch\af13\insrsid14305830 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid861408 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid13321691\charrsid861408 
[although] royalties and license fees are the most direct measure available of international earnings on patents, trademarks, copyrights, and trade secrets [\'85
 they] are imperfect measures of the value of technology exchange. Within a multinational firm,
 the fees charged a subsidiary may depend on international tax structures. Furthermore, optimal pricing of information is a complex problem, and receipts of license fees and investment income may be poor indicators of the economic value of intellectual as
sets.}{\cs36\i\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langnp2057\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid861408 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Maskus, \lquote }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
The role of intellectual property rights in encouraging foreign direct investment and technology transfer\rquote  in Carsten Fink and Keith E. Maskus (ed.), Intellectual property and development: lessons from recent economic research (Washington D
C: World Bank, 2005), p.45.}}}{\i\insrsid13321691\charrsid861408 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par This is clearly true, especially with regard to copyrighted products. }{\dbch\af13\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
In a country such as South Africa, which has a functioning publishing sector, foreign books can be brought into the country in several ways, by direct impor\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
t of an overseas edition, by importing sheets to be bound up into a local edition under a local imprint, or by resetting the book completely. In each case, a certain proportion of the capital outflow would need to be isolated from other expenses in order 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 t\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 o attribute it to IP rights.}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par Maskus has published selected data from the IMF}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 s balance of payments statistics to quantify the flow of royalties and fees in selected cases. However, he points out that }{\insrsid10166911 \'93
}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 many countries do not compile reliable and comprehensive data on such flows}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Ibid. }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 p.43. }}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  and so this kind of analysis is difficult. However, most of Maskus}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 analysis focuses on the effect that a strong national patent regime has on foreign direct investment in developing countries, rather than on copyright issues per se; his interest is mainly in questions of technology transfer. As he points out, }{
\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 intellectual property protection has taken on increasing importance to multinational enterprises.}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid. }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 p. 62. }}}{\insrsid13321691 
\par }{\insrsid14305830 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid13321691\charrsid5465620 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734273}2.}{
\b0\fs28\insrsid4936081\charrsid5465620 6}{\b0\fs28\insrsid13321691\charrsid5465620  How }{\b0\fs28\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\b0\fs28\insrsid13321691\charrsid5465620 national treatment}{\b0\fs28\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{
\b0\fs28\insrsid13321691\charrsid5465620  increases the net outflow of capital from the South}{\b0\fs28\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620 {\*\bkmkend _Toc135734273} }{\b0\fs28\insrsid13321691\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid12658866 
\par }{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12658866 What is national treatment?}{\cs36\b0\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid12658866 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 This article draws heavily upon Alan Story, \lquote Burn Berne: Why the Leading International Copyright Convention Must be Repealed,\rquote  40 University of Houston Law Review, 763 (2003). }}}{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12658866 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 The principle of national treatment,}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  according to a leading international copyright lawyer, }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 has proved itself as the fundamental principle of copyright and neighbouring rights conventions for nearly a century.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs21\dbch\af13\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Stephen M. Stewart, International Copyright and Neighbouring Rights (2d ed. 1989), p.42 (emphasis added). Other commentators have discussed the \lquote pervasiveness\rquote 
 of the principle of national treatment in Berne, as evidenced by the fact that there are only three exceptions to national treatment in Berne), stated that \lquote 
border-preserving rule of national treatment remains the cornerstone of Berne and its successor agreements\rquote  and concluded that national treatment provides \lquote the basis\rquote  of Berne, as we
ll as of the Paris Convention which deals with patents and trade marks. }}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  A recent WTO dispute panel took a similar view as to the centrality of the notion of national treatment for international copyright relations.}{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs36\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  See WTO Appellate Body Report on United States \endash 
 Section 211 Omnibus Appropriations Act of 1998, \'a7240\endash 242, WTO Doc. WT/DS176/AB/R (Jan. 2, 2002).}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  First proclaimed at an 1878 authors}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 conference that preceded the Berne Convention (the leading international copyright treaty) of 1886, }{\insrsid2498576\charrsid2429221 the concept }{\insrsid10255762\charrsid2429221 of national}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 treatment became a key feature not only of Berne itself, but also of subsequent international intellectual property treaties and agreements, such as the TRIPS Agreement.}{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs36\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Article 3, TRIPS Agreement (sta
ting that member nations shall treat each other equally \lquote with regard to the protection of intellectual property\rquote ).}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par Sometimes labelled the principle of assimilation, national treatment means }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 the complete assimilation [for copyright purposes] of foreigners to nationals}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs36\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Stephen P. Ladas, The International Protection of Literary and Artistic Property, Vol. 1 (1938) p. 365.}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  and has been defined as }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
a rule of non-discrimination, promising foreign creators who come within [a] treaty}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 s protection that they w
ill enjoy the same treatment for their creations in the protecting country as the protecting country gives to its own nationals.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  }{\cs18\super\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Paul Goldstein, International Copyright: Principles, Law and Practice (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 72. }}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par Reduced to its basics, national treatment means equal treatment or equal protection by }{\insrsid2436489\charrsid2429221 the }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 law}{\insrsid2436489\charrsid2429221 s}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 of copyright to works owned by nationals and non-nationals alike. Here}{\insrsid1781502  is how it works in practice}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 : Assuming that countries X and Y are members of the Berne Convention (and given that there }{
\insrsid2571823\charrsid2429221 were }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 160 }{\insrsid2571823\charrsid2429221 members as of }{\insrsid10255762\charrsid2429221 January}{\insrsid2571823\charrsid2429221  2006, }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
including all the }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 major}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 countries in the world, this is usually a safe assumption), if a resident or citizen A of country X produces a work in X that is also used in country Y, the work of 
A must be protected in Y on the same legal basis as the work of writer B (who is a resident/citizen of Y) in country Y. To use the same example and apply it to the question of copyright duration/term, all works in Y \endash  whether produced by A or B 
\endash  must have the same duration of copyright in Y (for example, life of the author plus 50 years, o}{\insrsid1781502 r}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 plus 70 years (e.g. in the US or the European Union) or plus 100 years (e.g. which Mexico has recently done under US pressure).}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Note: On the question of duration, the EU does NOT actually follow this practice; it does discriminate against countries that do not have the same high standard of life of the author, plus 70 years, but this is an issue beyond the scope of this section.}
}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par As for the philosophical or political justification, national treatment is viewed as being }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
in accord with the ideal of international law that all men [sic] are equal before the law, regardless of whether they are nationals or foreigners.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs36\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Stewart, op cit. at p. 38.}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 So, on one level, the concept of }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 national treatment}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 appears to be promoting the laudatory values of equality and non-discrimination, especially against non-nationals. However as the US Supreme Court concluded in another context, }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
[s]ometimes the grossest discrimination can lie in treating things that are different as though they were exactly alike.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs36\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
\chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\i\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Jenness v. Fortson}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 , 403 U.S. 431, 442 (1971).}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid7494380\charrsid2429221 In one }{
\insrsid3346244\charrsid2429221 19}{\insrsid8063160\charrsid2429221 6}{\insrsid3346244\charrsid2429221 6 }{\insrsid7494380\charrsid2429221 International Court of Justice case, a judge recognised that }{\insrsid12727725\charrsid2429221 if a }{
\insrsid6949906\charrsid2429221 valid }{\insrsid12727725\charrsid2429221 case }{\insrsid14499734\charrsid2429221 can be established for what }{\insrsid12727725\charrsid2429221 is called }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid12727725\charrsid2429221 
differential treatment}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid6949906\charrsid2429221 , a court must necessarily}{\insrsid12326439\charrsid2429221 , }{\insrsid3820070\charrsid2429221 as a matter of justice}{\insrsid12326439\charrsid2429221 , }{
\insrsid3820070\charrsid2429221 take steps to act on this difference; as Judge Tanaka wrote: }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid3820070\charrsid2429221 To treat unequal matters }{\insrsid3346244\charrsid2429221 differently according to their inequ}{
\insrsid12326439\charrsid2429221 ality is not only permitted but required.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid15733010\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s28\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\i\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 South West Africa}{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  (Dissenting Opinion Tanaka), Second Phase, Judgement. ICJ Reports (1966) 6, at p. 306. As Judge Tanaka explained on pp. 303-304: \'93
The principle of equality before
 the law does not mean the absolute equality, namely the equal treatment of men without regard to individual, concrete circumstances, but it means the relative equality, namely the principle to treat equally what are equal and unequally what are unequal.
\'94}}}{\insrsid3820070\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid8063160\charrsid2429221 Berne Convention jurisprudence, however, rejects this approach}{\insrsid1719861\charrsid2429221 . As a result, }{\insrsid8063160\charrsid2429221 here is what }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 the concept of }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 national treatment}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  means}{\insrsid8063160\charrsid2429221 , }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 in practice}{\insrsid8063160\charrsid2429221 , }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 for }{\insrsid1719861\charrsid2429221 all }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 countries of the South}{\insrsid11747174\charrsid2429221 : }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 for the country of Tanzania}{\insrsid11747174\charrsid2429221 , for example, }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 all cultural goods (fiction, films, etc.) }{\insrsid11235252\charrsid2429221 which }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 are produced either domestically, regionally (say within East Africa) or in any country covered by the Berne Convention ( e.g. USA, UK, Japan}{\insrsid11235252\charrsid2429221 ) }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
must all be treated alike for copyright purposes, no matter how different are the conditions in which they are produced, the importance of the works, the national priorities set for their use, etc.}{
\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  There is an exception that may be used in certain special cases, the so-called Berne Convention \lquote 
three-step test\rquote , but it is of extremely limited use by countries of the South and beyond the scope of this section. See Section 4.12}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  
\par 
\par To conclude: What international copyright regimes attempt to do is reduce and homogenise all forms of cultural production to a single, one-dimensional property
 phenomenon, that is, to a capitalist commodity, and then proclaim the essential equality of all commodities in the global marketplace}{\insrsid15480462\charrsid2429221 . A}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
ll other aspects or characteristics of such production are neglected, indeed suppressed. From this we can draw two basic conclusions: }{\b\i\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 First}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
, it is incoherent to argue that countries of the South must, for copyright purposes, recognise within their own borders the formal legal equality of all cultural and artistic creations produced across the globe when, on so many other d
imensions, there is extreme inequality and disparity in the conditions of production and use across the globe. }{\b\i\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 Second}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
, national treatment does not work in the interests of countries of the South, but rather reinforces the power of rich industrialised countries and their rights holders. Laws mandating national treatment may encourage formal equality, but }{
\i\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 reproduce substantive inequality}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 .}{\cs36\fs24\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s39\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs36\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Speaking about the conditions existing in Paris in 1894, Anatole France wrote, in his well-known phrase, that it is \'93
the majestic equality of the laws, which forbid rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal their bread.\'94 Anatole France, The Red Lily 95 (Winifred Stephens trans., 1930) (suggesting that if \lquote unalikes\rquote 
 face equally enforced laws, enforcing laws that go to the very nature of their \lquote unalikeness\rquote  or difference result not in equality but substantive inequality).}}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 Indeed, it is the private intellectual property rights of the richest nations and richest rights holders that are 
one of the leading sources of the current inequality between rich and poor nations. It is in the very act of upholding and enforcing these private property rights that t}{\insrsid12658866 hese inequalities are deepened.}{\insrsid13321691 
\par }{\insrsid12658866\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12658866 
The economic effects of }{\f1\fs24\insrsid10166911\charrsid12658866 \lquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12658866 national treatment}{\f1\fs24\insrsid10166911\charrsid12658866 \rquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid13321691\charrsid12658866  on the So
uth, especially with regard to capital flows}{\f1\fs24\insrsid14305830 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 For copyright-protected cultural goods produced in rich industrialised countries (and this is where the majority of such goods are produced globally}{\insrsid12808440\charrsid2429221 , }{\insrsid1731215\charrsid2429221 
as was detailed in Section }{\insrsid12808440\charrsid2429221 2.2}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 ) and used in the South, the }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 national treatment}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  requirement ensures that, at least in terms of copyright, such works cannot be subjected to any tariff-like protection favouring or giving an advantage to domestically-produced goods}{\insrsid12808440\charrsid2429221 
. Thus, to take one example, }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 the collection and flow of }{\insrsid12808440\charrsid2429221 copyright }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 royalty payments is unencumbered. Indeed, the }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 national treatment}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  approach very much acts on a borderless, }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 the whole world is one market}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 , and pro-globalisation orientation. For example, a country in the South might decide that, to build up i
ts own domestic cultural industries, it would need to give privileged treatment to domestically\endash produced goods. Or such a country might decide that translation }{\insrsid10255762\charrsid2429221 of (}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 or into}{
\insrsid8520507\charrsid2429221 )}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  certain languages should get favoured treatment. Or such a country might decide that }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 fair dealing/fair use}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 copyright provisions might operate differently for domestic vs. foreign works. Or, to give a final example, a country in the South might decide to have different policies re: payment to collecting societies for domestic co
pyrighted goods compared to foreign goods. }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 National treatment}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 would, at least in theory, block any of these policy options for a country in the South. (However, as there is very little jurisprudence on such issues, it is difficult to say for certain how a WTO dispute settlement panel would rule on such issues.) 

\par 
\par Conversely, cultural goods produced in the South and used in the North gain little from }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 national treatment}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
 in the North because there is \endash  for a wide number of reasons \endash  a relatively small market in the North for such goods. And if }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 national treatment}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  is not followed for Southern-produced goods in the North, it is unlikely that Southern creators would know about such discriminatory treatment or have the resources to challenge it. }{\insrsid14305830 
\par }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par In the same vein, it needs to be appreciated that when }{\insrsid1781502 a }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
country such as Mexico raises its duration of copyright to life of the author, plus 100 years (this means that if a work is produced in 2005 and the author dies in 2055, copyright extends until 2155 \endash  or 150 yea
rs after publication) and when it is required that Mexican and non-Mexican authors get equal protection, it will be }{\i\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 non-Mexican authors}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221  that will be the main beneficiary of such }{
\insrsid10255762\charrsid2429221 protection. }{\insrsid11081449\charrsid2429221 Why? B}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 ecause they are so much more numerous and produce }{\insrsid11081449\charrsid2429221 far }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 more e
conomically valuable works. Indeed, this is why the US put pressure on Mexico during recent free trade talks}{\insrsid8538371\charrsid2429221  to extend its copyright duration. }{\cs18\super\insrsid15616880\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 For more on durati}{\insrsid8483307 on of copyright, see Section 4.2}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . }}}{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid8538371\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 The overall }{\insrsid2498576\charrsid2429221 result: }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 cultural goods which are already mo
re economically valuable and in demand (e.g. US soap operas in Latin America) will be the main beneficiaries of national treatment}{\insrsid15943985\charrsid2429221 ; the }{\insrsid15616880\charrsid2429221 biggest }{\insrsid15943985\charrsid2429221 prod}{
\insrsid15616880\charrsid2429221 ucers of }{\insrsid15943985\charrsid2429221 copyright-protected works have }{\insrsid13321691\charrsid2429221 far more intellectual property to protect. 
\par }{\insrsid4725319 \page }{\insrsid1926113\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\i\f1\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734274}SECTION }{
\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid4936081\charrsid5465620 3 \endash }{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  }{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 PRIVATISING THE PUBLIC DOMAIN AND IMPOSING WESTERN/NORTHERN ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT CULTURAL PRODUCTION}{
\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620 {\*\bkmkend _Toc135734274} }{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid861408 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid11872415\charrsid4725319 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734275}3.1 Introduction
{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734275} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid861408 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \'93}{\i\insrsid11872415\charrsid861408 
The West has consistently sought to impose intellectual property laws on developing countries and indigenous populations with no notion of intellectual property as conceived in the West.}{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \'94}{
\cs18\i\super\insrsid8675791\charrsid861408 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Daniel Burkitt,}{\i\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \lquote Copyright culture-The History and Cultural Specif
icity of the Western Model of Copyright\rquote , }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid13053155 2001 Intellectual Property Quarterly, 186.}}}{\i\insrsid11872415\charrsid861408 
\par }\pard \s37\qj \li0\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid14746169 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 
The first two sections of the dossier have examined privatisation issues more generally as well as the global economics for the South of copyright and its accompanying i
deology. In this section we turn our attention to questions centred on cultural production and the commonly-held assumption, championed by organisations such as World Intellectual Property Organisation, that}{\insrsid7603589  \endash  }{
\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 to put it most }{\insrsid3473853\charrsid2429221 directly}{\insrsid7603589  \endash  }{\i\insrsid11872415\charrsid861408 a community, a country, or a region cannot have }{\i\insrsid15875562\charrsid861408 significant }{
\i\insrsid11872415\charrsid861408 cultural production without a strict copyright regime\'85. and indeed, the stricter the regime, the better and more diverse }{\i\insrsid16739024\charrsid861408 will be }{\i\insrsid11872415\charrsid861408 
the levels of cultural production,}{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221  whether in music or art or any of the }{\insrsid2452450 other}{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221  myriad forms of cultural production.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par }{\insrsid9861521\charrsid2429221 This }{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 is certainly a widespread assumption. For example, the well-known US legal academic Larry Lessig begins one of his books, }{\i\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 The Future of Ideas}{
\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 , with a brief anecdotal discussion of the work of a US documentary film director Davis Guggenheim. Lessig mentions }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 the ordinary and reasonable}{\insrsid10166911 
\'94}{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221  role that the copyright system plays in the production of films and then, as one of his }{\i\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 operating premises}{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 , writes that }{\insrsid10166911 \'93
}{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 without such a system we would not have anything close to the creativity that directors such as Guggenheim have produced.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221  }{
\cs18\super\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Lawrence Lessig, The Future of Ideas (Vintage Books: New York, 2002), p. 3.}}}{\insrsid13644416\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 
But as another academic commentator states in the quotation above, }{\insrsid10648687\charrsid2429221 copyright is }{\insrsid15875562\charrsid2429221 far from}{\insrsid10648687\charrsid2429221  a universal phenomenon and i}{
\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 mposing Western conceptions of copyright has a long history across the }{\insrsid2969698\charrsid2429221 global}{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221  South. Many }{\insrsid13053155 \lquote }{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 
missionaries}{\insrsid13053155 \rquote }{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221  have uncritically accepted, spread, and reinforced the view that awarding copyright to creators is the necessary incentive}{\insrsid3623856  \endash  }{
\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 as well as the best incentive}{\insrsid15212567  \endash }{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 required for the creation of cultural forms.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 
This section attempts }{\insrsid16739024\charrsid2429221 to }{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 challenge this view which, among other things, is a Western }{\insrsid13975180\charrsid2429221 (or Eurocentric) }{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 
conceit based on a narrow }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 centre-of-the-world}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 
 mentality; it denies the many cultural forms in the South which have been created for centuries in the South without any concern as to whether such works were or were not protected by copyright laws. 
\par 
\par Section Three begins with a brief explanation of the values infusing copyright regimes, such as individualism and the presumption that all cultural goods should be conceived, first and foremost, as mere m}{\insrsid12730929 arketable products. This section
}{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221  then provides a number of examples from across the South, including Asia, the Arab world, Africa, and among indigenous peoples, where traditional copyright conceptions have certainly }{
\i\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 not}{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221  been the incentive for the rich cultural production that exists. We then examine the question of so-called copyright }{\insrsid13053155 \lquote }{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 
piracy}{\insrsid13053155 \rquote }{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221  and the quickening pace in which the public domain is itself being }{\insrsid13053155 \lquote }{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 pirated}{\insrsid13053155 \rquote }{
\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221  and privatised. The section continues by raising questions }{\insrsid12730929 such }{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 
as why we should doubt that copyright laws, which have served cultural workers, such as musicians, in the rich developed countries so }{\insrsid11801372\charrsid2429221 poorly,}{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 
 will be of great assistance to the majority of musicians and other artists from the South. Other than a few }{\insrsid13053155 \lquote }{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 stars}{\insrsid13053155 \rquote }{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 
 and a few multinational recording companies, who will benefit? Section Three concludes with a detailed look at how WIPO, the United Nation}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11872415\charrsid2429221 
s richest agency, is relentlessly working to export the copyright system and its values to the global South.
\par }{\b\insrsid7235654\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid11107820\charrsid223083 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc109392495}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734276}3.2}
{\b0\fs28\insrsid16018739\charrsid223083  }{\b0\fs28\insrsid11107820\charrsid223083 The basic values and ideology of copyright{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734276} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 As a system, copyright is far more than a set of complicated }{\i\insrsid13975180\charrsid2429221 domestic }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 legal rules or }{\i\insrsid13053155 the words }{
\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 contained in various international agreements and conventions. And it is also much more than a mere economic calculus used by the owners of copyrighted materials to accumulate wealth (or, sometimes by authors
 and artists, as a way of protecting and getting payment for their labour.)}{\i\insrsid16018739  }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Rather, copyright represents one possible answer}{\i\insrsid7603589  \endash  }{\i\insrsid6572160\charrsid2429221 and}{
\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  there are many alternative answers}{\i\insrsid7603589  \endash  }{\i\insrsid6572160\charrsid2429221 to}{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  a wide range of questions: how 
do cultural, artistic, and literary objects get produced? By whom? For what reasons? And for whose benefit? Copyright thus represents a wide-ranging value system and }{\i\insrsid6712390\charrsid2429221 it }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
encompasses a set of philosophical justifications as to why this Western-based system should continue }{\i\insrsid6712390\charrsid2429221 both }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 to exist and to expand in its global reach and power.}{\i\insrsid16018739  
}{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par The initial article in this section of the dossier examines what we are calling }{\i\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 the values and ideology of copyright}{\i\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
, namely, individualism, commodification, reward, and consumerism.}{\cs18\i\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  This is a brief and \lquote popular\rquote 
 treatment of what are a number of complicated philosophical and political questions. For further reading, see some of the articles available on the open access Kent Law School Intellectual Property Resource Pages at: 
\par https://www.kent.ac.uk/law/undergraduate/modules/ip/resources/Opening.htm }}}{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
 In the case of countries of the South, they are values which are daily being transplanted and implanted by rich countries of the North to justify the overturning of long-standing an
d alternative approaches to cultural production that are discussed in later articles throughout this section.}{\i\insrsid15085520 
\par }{\i\insrsid11783\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\qj \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid11783 Individualism 
{\*\bkmkend _Toc109392495}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par Individualism extols as valuable the creative effort of an individual}{\cs18\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  M. A. Hamilton, \lquote The Trips Agreement: Imperialistic, Outdated, and Overprotective\rquote 
, in A .D. Moore (ed.), Intellectual Property: Moral Legal and International Dilemmas (Lanham, M.D.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997), p. 243.}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  and the protection of intellectual property, in this
 instance copyright, is seen as constituting a basic right of the individual.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid., p. 258.}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
 The justification for this approach is often sought from John Locke}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 s theory of natural law positing that a person}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
s effort or labour gives rise to an individual property interest.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 J. Locke, The Second Treatise of Government, edited by Thomas P. Peardon (Indianapolis: Bobs-Merrill, 1952), sec. 26\endash 7, 44 [1690]; H. C. Hansen, \lquote International Copyright: An Orthodox Analysis\rquote  in, A .D. Moore (ed), Intellectual Prope
rty: Moral Legal and International Dilemmas (Lanham, Maryland, USA: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997), p. 267.}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  Locke}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
s theory has helped shape individualism as it is known today by annexing rights to personage, the result of which is to invoke ownership. The property right in the copyrighted work }{\insrsid9383627\charrsid2429221 is said to }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 arise out of the direct relationship between an individual and the creation. Indeed, copyright doctrine states that a song or a poem acquires legal protection only if it is the work of an identifiable author}{
\insrsid5921173\charrsid2429221 . }{\insrsid2114867\charrsid2429221 J}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 oint}{\insrsid5921173\charrsid2429221  authors}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 , but also identifiable, }{\insrsid9383627\charrsid2429221 or }{
\insrsid5921173\charrsid2429221 an }{\insrsid9383627\charrsid2429221 anonymous }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 author may suffice in some circumstances}{\insrsid5921173\charrsid2429221 , but }{\insrsid2114867\charrsid2429221 authorship 
of some type is a pre-requisite.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid10577389\charrsid2429221 Moreover, it is not }{\insrsid6572160\charrsid2429221 coincidental}{\insrsid10577389\charrsid2429221  that the first article of the Berne }{
\insrsid7019867\charrsid2429221 Convention states that its sole purpose is }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 the protection of the rights of authors in their literary and artistic works}{\insrsid9189908\charrsid2429221 .}{
\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid9189908\charrsid2429221  Copyright is considered as having }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 no wider social purpose or common goal, such as education or cultural diversity, and }{\insrsid9189908\charrsid2429221 
there is supposedly }{\insrsid8474587\charrsid2429221 no other }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 source of creativity except that of the individual author.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par In France and in some other countries of Europe, copyright has an additional purpose, again a highly individualised one: the protection of the }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 droit moral }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 or the author}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 s moral/ personal right. Here what is at stake is not property or money or }{\insrsid6572160\charrsid2429221 financial considerations which are}{\insrsid8474587\charrsid2429221  the }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 single-minded focus of the Anglo}{\insrsid8474587\charrsid2429221 -}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 American copyright system}{\insrsid8474587\charrsid2429221 . Inst}{\insrsid11404675\charrsid2429221 ead, what is }{
\insrsid12256403\charrsid2429221 being protected is }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 the individual author}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 s personality. Derived from the writings of}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 the continental European philosophers Hegel and Kant, this }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 personality theory}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid14241560\charrsid2429221  }{
\insrsid12256403\charrsid2429221 or }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 justification }{\insrsid12589648\charrsid2429221 for copyright }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 argues that all creative works produced embody }{\insrsid12256403\charrsid2429221 (}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 or personify}{\insrsid12256403\charrsid2429221 ) }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 the spirit }{\insrsid12256403\charrsid2429221 (}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 or mind}{\insrsid12256403\charrsid2429221 )}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  of the individual creator}{\insrsid11404675\charrsid2429221 . In }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 fact}{\insrsid11404675\charrsid2429221 , this theo}{\insrsid12256403\charrsid2429221 ry argues }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 that there is }{\insrsid6572160\charrsid2429221 indivisibility}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid12589648\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
between the works created and the person who created them. As a result, an }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 injury}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  to creative works, for example}{
\insrsid16274649\charrsid2429221 ,}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  an unauthorised use or infringement, is considered an }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid6572160\charrsid2429221 injury}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid6572160\charrsid2429221  as
}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  well to the individual creator}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 s personality; they are seen as a synonymous }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 injury}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 . 
\par 
\par It is little wonder then that the rights and prerogatives of the individual author are, at least in theory, accorded such a central place in copyright law and ideology.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820 
\par }{\insrsid16411923\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc109392496}Commodification{\*\bkmkend _Toc109392496}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid861408 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par Why are songs composed, books written, or photographs taken? There are at least two reasons, among others. One rationale is that such works exp
ress the creative urges and aspirations of individuals and of wider societies. They are produced to communicate thoughts, to solve problems, to teach others, to express ideas and feelings and emotions. Collectively, they are part of the common heritage an
d
 culture of groups, of communities, and of nations. A competing view or rationale is that songs and books and photographs are commodities produced for the purpose of exchanging them for something; they are property, albeit intangible property, created pri
marily for trade and for commerce. 
\par 
\par The need for copyright laws is intimately linked with this second rationale, a process commonly known as }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 commodification}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 . The further linking of the production and use of creative expressions, such as books, with the mechanisms of world trade, was the underlying purpose behind the 1994 Agreement on }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
Trade-Related}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  Intellectual Property (italics added), popularly called the }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 TRIPS Agreement.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  As such, TRIPS represents the latest }{\insrsid16274649\charrsid12127175 (}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 and highest}{\insrsid16274649\charrsid12127175 ) }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
stage in the commodification of the production and use of songs, books, photographs and a myriad of other literary, artistic and cultural objects that are copyrighted, both domestically and globally. 
\par 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid861408 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
{\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft5280\shptop47\shpright8280\shpbottom3932\shpfhdr0\shpbxcolumn\shpbxignore\shpbypara\shpbyignore\shpwr4\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz2\shplid1028{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 202}}{\sp{\sn fFlipH}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFlipV}{\sv 0}}
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{\sp{\sn fShadow}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn f3D}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn pWrapPolygonVertices}{\sv 8;7;(-108,-83);(-108,21600);(648,22184);(22464,22184);(22464,667);(21708,-83);(-108,-83)}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}
{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\shptxt \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4196630 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid2303792 \'93
Intellectual property laws with their epicentres in Washington, New York, Brussels, and Geneva travel like invisible tsunamis to developing countries. There they turn the national innovation systems of those countries into so much dust.\'94
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4196630 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid2303792 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8336811 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid2303792 Peter Drahos,}{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid2303792  }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307 \lquote }{
\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid2303792 Cities of Planning and Cities of Non-planning: Geography of Intellectual Property,}{\i\f66\insrsid8483307 \rquote }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid2303792  World Information- IP City Edition, November 2005.}{
\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid2303792 
\par }}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt2\dptxbx\dptxlrtb{\dptxbxtext\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4196630 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid2303792 \'93Intellectual property laws with their epicentres in Washington, New York, Brussels,
 and Geneva travel like invisible tsunamis to developing countries. There they turn the national innovation systems of those countries into so much dust.\'94
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4196630 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid2303792 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8336811 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid2303792 Peter Drahos,}{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid2303792  }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307 \lquote }{
\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid2303792 Cities of Planning and Cities of Non-planning: Geography of Intellectual Property,}{\i\f66\insrsid8483307 \rquote }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid2303792  World Information- IP City Edition, November 2005.}{
\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid2303792 
\par }}\dpx5280\dpy47\dpxsize3000\dpysize3885\dpfillfgcr255\dpfillfgcg255\dpfillfgcb255\dpfillbgcr255\dpfillbgcg255\dpfillbgcb255\dpfillpat1\dplinew15\dplinecor0\dplinecog0\dplinecob0}}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 At first glance, individualism}{
\insrsid881840\charrsid12127175 , }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 the first copyright value }{\insrsid881840\charrsid12127175 explained above, }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
and commodification may appear to be in conflict with one another. But in capitalist terms, the two perfectly compliment each other. Here is how the process works}{\insrsid881840\charrsid12127175 :}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid12127175  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 Commodification consists in the dissociation of goods from their producers in order to facilitate the passage of these goods into the stream of commerce}{\insrsid12585499\charrsid12127175 . As a }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 result, the creator of the product need not be the owner or distributor}{\insrsid12585499\charrsid12127175  of that product. }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 And so while the }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 
\lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 personality}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid12925032\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
of the individual is disassociated from the intellectual goods she or he has created, what happens, at the same time, is that the }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 propertising}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  of ownership rights }{\insrsid4866552\charrsid12127175 occurs }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 under the }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 initial }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 (but usually not subsequent)}{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 control of a single individual}{\insrsid2833614\charrsid12127175 ; this process transforms }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 a literary or artistic work into a commodity }{\insrsid2833614\charrsid12127175 which can }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 then be amortised in the marketplace by maximising distribution and hence, profits.}{
\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Akalemwa Ngenda, \lquote The Nature of the International Intellectual Property System: Universal Norms and Values or Western Chauvinism?\rquote 
, Information & Communications Technology Law, Vol 14. 2005, pp. 59-79.}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid4866552\charrsid12127175 In short, p}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 ersonality is converted into capital}{
\insrsid2833614\charrsid12127175 . }{\insrsid4866552\charrsid12127175 Or to }{\insrsid2833614\charrsid12127175 explain }{\insrsid4866552\charrsid12127175 the process more fully, we need to appreciate that when }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
intellectual property-based goods pass through the domestic and increasingly global channels of commercial production and distribution, they are stripped of the }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 persona}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
 with which they were individualised when they were made}{\insrsid16592474\charrsid12127175 . They }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 are retailed merely as capital goods and usually as the property of some corporate or other commercial entity}{
\insrsid8277910\charrsid12127175 ; they are }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 not }{\insrsid16592474\charrsid12127175 under the control of }{\insrsid8277910\charrsid12127175 a single individual.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid12127175  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid861408 {\insrsid2303792\charrsid12127175 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc109392497}Reward{\*\bkmkend _Toc109392497}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid861408 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par As items of commerce, copyrighted goods can be exchanged for profit. But why are they created in the first place?}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
The standard argument pro-copyright commentators provide is that, without the financial reward or incentives provided by copyright, such works
 would not have been created. In the same vein, establishing a lengthened duration for copyrighted works is seen as giving creators an increased incentive to produce works}{\insrsid13570890\charrsid12127175 ; as a consequence, they }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 will supposedly create more and better works}{\insrsid13570890\charrsid12127175 . }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 So incentive a
s reward is a third integral tenet of the copyright scheme. (What is ignored, we note in passing, is that many of the greatest works of literature and art were}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid12127175  \endash  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 and are being}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid12127175  \endash  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 created without any reference to copyright incentives; one thinks of the many plays by the English dramatist William Shakespeare or dazzling Yoruba art from Nigeria.)}{
\insrsid16018739\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par 
\par The result of this }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 reward the creator}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  orientation is that society is held to be}{
\insrsid2303792\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 monetarily obliged to authors, composers, and artists. And this process is said to 
be linked with the quality of the products we can purchase and use for a price. To be rewarded, products originating from individual creators must supposedly be singled out on the basis of their quality; this is done by granting the owners proprietary rig
hts over them.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Hamilton, op cit., p. 245.}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
 Ideally, unless the product can be said to be creative, it cannot attract such reward. This operation has become the measure of appreciation and recognition in the eyes of copyright law, }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 vis. a vis.}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 , remuneration. }{\insrsid14305830\charrsid12127175 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc109392498}
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 Consumerism 
{\*\bkmkend _Toc109392498}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par After visiting a book store or a music CD shop in a large North American or European city at Christmas time and seeing their overflowing shelves, one can certainly ask: do we really need 25 crime novels by the same author or 25 }{
\insrsid13908236\charrsid2429221 more }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 CDs }{\insrsid13908236\charrsid2429221 from }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 the same band? Meanwhile, many valuable books we actually do need are no longer in print or }{
\insrsid13908236\charrsid2429221 are }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 far too expensive}{\insrsid13908236\charrsid2429221 \'85 and }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 certainly }{\insrsid14622385\charrsid2429221 too expensive }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 for the budgets of most people and most libraries in the South}{\insrsid13908236\charrsid2429221 . Meanwhile, }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 a great deal of }{\insrsid13908236\charrsid2429221 good }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 music that does not make }{\insrsid13908236\charrsid2429221 it into }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
the bland mainstream pop charts cannot be found. But making greater profits in the marketplace, not fulfilling human needs, is what dictates the marketing of copyrighted commodities. Twinn
ed with this is another requirement: more and more and more and ever more books must be produced}{\insrsid2580114\charrsid2429221 , marketed and }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 sold.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid14305830 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par At the same time, it is a common feature of consumer culture that the impetus for purchasing goods is more often than not largely motivated by reasons and purposes other than function or utility. As one commentator explains, }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 consumer culture is a particular form of material culture that\'85}{\insrsid14166100  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 emerged in Euro-American societies during the second half of the twentieth century}{\insrsid10166911 
\'94}{\insrsid2425199\charrsid2429221 , co}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 ntinuing}{\insrsid2425199\charrsid2429221  that }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 consumption is always a cultural as well as an economic process.}{
\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Celia Lury, Consumer Culture (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1996), p. 1 and p. 51.}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
 Consumers can largely be distinguished from mere buyers in that the former chiefly buy }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 to sustain their sense of psychological well-being}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
 or }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 to signal status.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  }{\cs18\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 See S. L. Winter, \lquote What Makes Modernity Late?\rquote  (2005) International Journal of Law in Context, 1(1) 61\endash 80.}}}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
Copyright protection of the most promoted, the most fashionable, and the most }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 talked about}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
 song or movie or crime novel entrenches these values and consequently leaves consumers susceptible to be influenced through the market by those who}{\insrsid6164357\charrsid2429221 se }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 purpose }{
\insrsid6164357\charrsid2429221 it is }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 to control and maximise profits.
\par 
\par In the current era, the link between consumerism and copyright is becoming ever firmer;}{\insrsid4734730\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 as media theorist Herbert Schiller explains, }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 cultural production, in its basic forms and relations}{\insrsid6164357\charrsid2429221 ,}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  is becoming }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
increasingly indistinguishable from production in general.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  }{\cs18\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Herbert I. Schiller, Living in the Number One Country: Reflections from a Critic of American Empire ( New York: Seven Stories Press, 2000), p. 62. }}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  
\par }{\b\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid11107820\charrsid9919974 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734277}
3.3 The differing traditions of cultural creation in the South{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734277} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
One of the central assumptions of Western copyright law and ideology is that the creation of stories or songs or artistic works requires a single author who conjures up works of literature or music or art through a stroke of individual genius. Such works 
a
re unique and original, it is claimed, and this approach to creativity, it is further claimed, is a universal one. First and foremost, such works must be commodities that are owned and produced for sale in the national and international marketplace. Hence
, the need for a global copyright regime to protect authors and their individual copyrights because well, }{\i\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\i\insrsid6436818\charrsid2429221 that}{\i\insrsid15597749 \rquote s}{\i\insrsid6436818\charrsid2429221  the way it}{
\i\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\i\insrsid6436818\charrsid2429221 s done in the West.}{\i\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\i\insrsid16018739  }{\i\insrsid14305830 
\par }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par Yet all across the global South there are many radically different traditions of creativity.}{\i\insrsid16018739  }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Some stretch bac
k many centuries. Others are widespread across entire regions, while others are more localised. Here are some examples, put together in no particular order and in rather eclectic fashion, which give a few}{\i\insrsid6436818\charrsid2429221  artistic }{
\i\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 snapshots}{\i\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  rather than provid}{\i\insrsid6436818\charrsid2429221 ing }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 a compre
hensive picture. More examples are found in the following two articles on Arab culture and the traditional knowledge of indigenous people.}{\i\insrsid16018739  }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
The story teller of Peshawar}{\cs18\f1\fs24\cf1\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid13566274 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  This is a personal account of a trip to Peshawa
r undertaken in August 2004 by a university student Ali Khan. Thanks to Ali for his contributions to this section (and others) of this particular article. }}}{\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid13566274 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par The chattering comes to an intuitive halt; the room becomes motionless and an eerie silence envelops the air. Khan Baba steps in, unaided even in his old age, he is the embodiment of a proud Pathan}{\insrsid11405577\charrsid2429221 .}{
\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 The indigenous people of Northwest Pakistan and parts of Afghanistan.}}}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  A pristine white beard flows from a face, wrinkled through age and physical hardsh
ip; his eyes though are a testament to his blazing spirit. A word is yet to be spoken; Khan Baba instead relies on his eyes to relay warmth. The bustling market seems to have sensed the occasion, the buses and the rickshaws seem no longer to be there. Kha
n Baba finally greets his audience, orders some tea and gets into an inane conversation with those around him; a veteran of the art}{\insrsid11405577\charrsid2429221 , }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
he teases the anxious audience. Finally he begins; it is going to be a story of passion and love, war and death, with a smile he adds }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 about all the good things in life}{\insrsid10166911 
\rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 . 
\par 
\par This is the story of a story-teller, Khan Baba, who belongs to a dying breed of men, anxious to hold on to the last remnants of their heritage\'85storytelling. They ply their trade in the }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Qissa-Kahani}{
\i\insrsid11405577\charrsid2429221  }{\i\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 This literally translates into \lquote 
story and tale\rquote .}}}{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
Bazaar, in Peshawar, Pakistan which is located on the border with Afghanistan and which has, for centuries, served as the bridge between Central Asia, Persia, and India. It is in Peshawar that traders and travell
ers, men of science and men of war, travelling through the Khyber Pass and the Silk Route have stopped and relayed their stories for hundreds of years in tea shops dotted around the Bazaar. These tea shops are a relic to a bygone era, but even today they 
serve as an ancient repository of stories and memoirs. Khan Baba recalls the story of his grandfather who would die fighting the British in a bid to retain the }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 smallest piece of land}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  in the whole region. This story of valour will probably never be written
, not that Khan Baba would mind such a thing. He simply chooses not to care. To him a story can never simply be read, it must be listened to and then passed on through the generations. When it comes to these stories, there is no concept of ownership or of
 uniqueness; there is however a concept of sharing one}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
s experiences and of imparting knowledge; for these stories are considered to be the collective wisdom of the Pathans. The story tellers consider themselves to be guardians of an ancient tradition, and 
by recalling the stories of their lives, and the lives of their forefathers, they keep their history alive. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 Australian }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620 a}{\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 borigines 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid861408 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par Many different cultures and civilisations strongly believe that knowledge is something to be shared amongst all people and should not }{\insrsid15597749 be }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
confined to those who can afford to gain knowledge. The Australian Aborigines, for example, have no Western concept of 
originality. In aboriginal culture, art is not defined by originality, no matter how distinct it may be, but by the correct representation of ancestral traditions, known as }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
the Dreaming}{\insrsid3832542\charrsid12127175 .}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 The Dreaming tells of the journey and the actions of Ancestral Beings who created the natural world. The Dreaming is infinite and links the past with the present to determine the future. <}{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://indigenousaustralia.frogandtoad.com.au/story.html" }}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://indigenousaustralia.frogandtoad.com.au/story.html}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 >.}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  
The stories which constitute the Dreaming carry the truth from the past together with the code of Law, which operates in the present. The Dreaming consists of the natural world, especially the land or county to which a person belongs, and hence it is the 
person who belongs to the Dreaming and not the dreaming to the person.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid861408 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 
In our ceremonies we wear marks on our bodies, they come from the dreaming too, we carry the design that the Dreamings gave to us. When we wear that Dreaming mark we are carrying the co
untry, we are keeping the Dreaming held up, we are keeping the country and the Dreaming alive.}{\cs18\i\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 A Yanyuwa man from the Gulf of Carpentaria, Mussolini Harvey, describing the link between body painting and the Dreaming. }}}{
\i\lang7177\langfe2052\dbch\af13\langfenp2052\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\f1\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
The Masai warriors of East Africa
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
The philosophy of a collective pooling of knowledge through storytelling is shared by the Masai warriors of the African savannah. The Masai, like the Pathans do not seek to commodify knowledge and profit from its ownership. Rathe
r, it is much more important that their stories are remembered and survive, even when they do not. This concept of authorship has evolved over thousands of years and has become an important vestige of Masai heritage. }{\insrsid14305830 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid861408 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 It is only the story that can continu
e beyond the war and the warrior.}{\i\insrsid10759978\charrsid861408  }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 It is the story that outlives the sound of war-drums and the exploits of brave fighters.}{\i\insrsid10759978\charrsid861408  }{
\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 It is the story that saves our progeny from blundering like blind beggars}{\i\insrsid10759978\charrsid861408  }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 into the spikes of the cactus fence.}{\i\insrsid10759978\charrsid861408  }{
\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 The story is our escort; without it, we are blind.}{\i\insrsid10759978\charrsid861408  }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 Does the blind man own his escort? No, neither do we the story;}{
\i\insrsid10759978\charrsid861408  }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 rather it is the st}{\i\insrsid861408 ory that owns us and directs us.}{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408  }{\cs18\i\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Chinua Achebe, Anthills of the Savannah (New York:}{\i\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Anchor Books/Doubleday, 1988) }}}{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\f1\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 Algerian ra\'ef music}{
\f1\fs24\ul\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid861408 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par The artist and the inventor often proceed from the work of predecessors. A good example of this type of artistic continuity is Algerian ra\'ef music. (Other examples are traditional and popular music cultures such as calypso, samba, and rap}{
\insrsid15686956\charrsid12127175  from Latin America and the Caribbean.) }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 In writing about ra\'ef music, Bouziane Daoudi and Hadj Miliani emphasise }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'93}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 that the same theme may know as many variations as there are performers.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'94}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  The base is shared knowledge, }{\insrsid10901698\charrsid12127175 w}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 hich refers less to a repertoire of existing }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 texts}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
 but more to a whole of social signs}{\insrsid15686956\charrsid12127175 , }{\insrsid6302373\charrsid12127175 such as }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 el m\'e9rioula, el mehna, el minoun, }{\insrsid6302373\charrsid12127175 and}{
\i\insrsid6302373\charrsid12127175  }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 e\'b4har}{\i\insrsid6302373\charrsid12127175 .}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\lang1036\langfe2057\langnp1036\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Bouziane Daoudi and Hadj Miliani, L\rquote aventure du ra\'ef: musique et soci\'e9t\'e9 (Paris: \'c9ditions du Seuil, 1996), p.126-9}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  
\par 
\par Ra\'ef has no true }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 author}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  in the Western copyright sense of the term of }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 authorship}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 . Until some years ago and before it entered the Western market, the singers }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 borrowed}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
 songs or choruses from each other. The public added words spontaneously to a song. Theft, pillage, and plagiarism of texts do not exist as far as these singers, known as the }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 chebs}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
 and the }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 chebete}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
, are concerned. It is a form of music that depends heavily on influences from the immediate circumstances, period, place, or audience. Bouziane Daoudi and Hadj Miliani describe the ra\'ef as a }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'93}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 continuum of a strongly perturbed social imagination.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'94}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid. }}}{
\insrsid12735873\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par }{\insrsid3500576\charrsid12127175 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
{\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft3912\shptop-1317\shpright8232\shpbottom1942\shpfhdr0\shpbxcolumn\shpbxignore\shpbypara\shpbyignore\shpwr4\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz3\shplid1029{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 202}}{\sp{\sn fFlipH}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFlipV}{\sv 0}}
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{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\shptxt \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11742659 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs27\b\f66\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid11742659 
\'93[t]he range of Western beliefs that define intellectual and cultural property laws... are not universal values that express the full range of human possibility, but particular, interested 
fictions emergent from a history of colonialism that has disempowered many of the world\rquote s peoples.\'94 }{\cs27\f66\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid11742659 
\par 
\par }{\cs27\i\f66\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid11742659 Rosemary J. {\*\bkmkstart SearchTerm}{\*\bkmkend SearchTerm}Coombe{\*\bkmkstart SR_13070}{\*\bkmkend SR_13070}, The Cultural Life of Intellectual Properties: Authorship, Appropriation, and the Law (}{
\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid11742659 Durham, North Carolina, US: Duke University Press, 1998) p. 247}{\cs27\f0\fs24\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt3\dptxbx\dptxlrtb{\dptxbxtext\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11742659 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs27\b\f66\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid11742659 \'93[t]he range of Western beliefs that define intellectual and cultural property laws... are not universal values that express the full range of human possibility, but particular, interested 
fictions emergent from a history of colonialism that has disempowered many of the world\rquote s peoples.\'94 }{\cs27\f66\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid11742659 
\par 
\par }{\cs27\i\f66\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid11742659 Rosemary J. {\*\bkmkstart SearchTerm}{\*\bkmkend SearchTerm}Coombe{\*\bkmkstart SR_13070}{\*\bkmkend SR_13070}, The Cultural Life of Intellectual Properties: Authorship, Appropriation, and the Law (}{
\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid11742659 Durham, North Carolina, US: Duke University Press, 1998) p. 247}{\cs27\f0\fs24\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}\dpx3912\dpy-1317\dpxsize4320\dpysize3259\dpfillfgcr255\dpfillfgcg255\dpfillfgcb255\dpfillbgcr255\dpfillbgcg255\dpfillbgcb255\dpfillpat1\dplinew15\dplinecor0\dplinecog0\dplinecob0}}}}{\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 African music 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid861408 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par Even when copyrights are applied in many non-Western cultures, it soon becomes clear that the ideology sustaining the system }{\insrsid23171\charrsid12127175 does not work when you consider }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
the complexity of the creative process}{\insrsid23171\charrsid12127175 . }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 In the Western world, there exists a sharp division between the composer and the performer in the case of music. This }{\insrsid13315861 is }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 not so, however, in African music, which according to John Collins, is usually associated with many more aspects than only the music. }{\insrsid6572160\charrsid12127175 Thus, in this case,}{
\insrsid16018739\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'93}{\insrsid6572160\charrsid12127175 royalty-accruing components\'85
.should, in the name of creative equity, be divided into four: the lyrics, the melody, the rhythm and the dance-step with the melody further divided into various contrapuntal or cross melodies and the polyrhythm into its multiple sub-rhythms.}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'94}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid6572160\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  John Collins, \lquote The problem of oral copyright: the case of Ghana\rquote 
, in Simon Frith (ed.) Music and Copyright (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1993) p. 149-50.}}}{\insrsid6572160\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 However, this is not all: }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'93}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 in African performing arts the audiences often have a creative role too, as they chant, clap and perform dance-dialogues with the musicians.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'94}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
 Obviously all of th}{\insrsid7410446\charrsid12127175 ese}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  elements change }{\insrsid7410446\charrsid12127175 for }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 every performance}{\insrsid7410446\charrsid12127175 
 and, as a result, every performance is changed. }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 It is clear that the individual allocation of copyrights cannot work. After all, }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
how does one measure the degree (and value) of }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 originality}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  in a continually }{
\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 reworked}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  piece of music?}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'94}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid. }}}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
The literature of China and Japan }{\f1\fs24\insrsid14305830\charrsid12127175 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid861408 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 Asian countries such as China and Japan both have long literary traditions in which copyright played no part. As one US intellectual property lawyer put it}{\cf1\insrsid6572160\charrsid12127175 , }{
\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'93}{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 in Asian cultures, inventions are freely disclosed, copying is a high form of flattery, and the individual is subservient to the community.}{
\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'94}{\cs18\b\cf1\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\nowidctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Arthur Wineburg, Jurisprudence in Asia: Enforcing Intellectual Property Rights, 5 University of Baltimore Intellectual Property Law Journal, 1997, p. 25.}}}{
\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  The title of a book by William P. Alford captures the same sense: }{\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 To Steal a Book is an Elegant Offence}{
\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid13053155 : }{\cs27\i\f0\fs24\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid13053155 Intellectual Property Law in Chinese Civilization.}{\cs27\i\f0\fs24\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid13053155 \rquote }{
\cs27\f40\fs19\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid13053155  }{\cs18\cf1\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid13053155 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Stanford, Ca. USA: }{\cs27\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Stanford University Press, 1995.}
}}{\cs27\f40\fs19\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid13053155 
\par }{\cs27\b\f40\fs19\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 Here}{\cf1\insrsid2317257\charrsid12127175 , for exam}{\cf1\insrsid4087279\charrsid12127175 ple, }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
is one view of the traditional Chinese approach. Since all artists are considered in Confucian philosophy to be a special breed within humanity, the ideals of originality must surely be universal. Are we then to say that someone who muses that }{
\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'93}{\i\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 I transmit rather than create; I believe in, and love, the ancients}{\i\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'94}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
 is not worthy of being an artist? This is a saying }{\insrsid6572160\charrsid12127175 of Confucius}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 The Analects of Confucius. Translated by A. Waley (New York: Macmillan, 1938). }}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  and it would be hard to deny that he was a creative genius or his work not worthy of being an original }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid13977681\charrsid12127175 literary }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 work}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 .
\par 
\par In traditional Chinese literature citing the ancients is the }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 very method of universal speech}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'94}{\insrsid23322\charrsid12127175  }{
\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Daniel Burkitt, \lquote Copyright culture- The History and Cultural Specificity of the Western Model of Copyright\rquote , 2001 Intellectual Property Quarterly, 177. }}
}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  and the reproduction and copying of already existing work never had the same }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 dark connotations}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote 
}{\insrsid2887915\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 as it had in Europe or the United States. The same is true in Chinese painting and calligraphy.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
The artistic process was viewed as a spiritual one and the commodification of knowledge is a notion that is simply unacceptable in the Chinese tradition.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid. }}}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par 
\par Another commentator explains that}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 i}{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
nventing a product or authoring a work of art, is an accomplishment of the family and the community, and is expected to be shared. Advancing, learning, and creating works are in the public domain, and are not considered objects privately owned by persons.
 Asians traditionally learn by copying the wisdom of their elders and ancestors. Making money by writing a book is not considered an }{\cf1\insrsid9115155\charrsid12127175 honourable}{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  }{
\cf1\insrsid9115155\charrsid12127175 endeavour}{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  for a learned person.}{\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'94}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  }{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Wineburg, p. 26. }}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par 
\par The idea of paid copyrights is also foreign to Japanese culture. Japan had to change its copyright law in 1996 under pressure from the US. The }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 International Herald Tribune}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
 reported at the time that, }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 current Japanese copyright law does not protect foreign recordings made before 1971, meaning that Western record 
companies, by their estimates, are losing millions of dollars a year in royalties from the copying of tunes that are still highly popular.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'94}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
 The headline of the article on this matter in the }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 International Herald Tribune}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  read: }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
US take music-piracy charge against Japan to WTO.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'94}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 International Herald Tribune, 10/11 February 1996.}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175  This is curious: a cultural difference (that is, a different opinion about how long rights should hold) has been interpreted as }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 
\lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 piracy}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 .
\par 
\par T\'f4ru Mitsui explains that the basic conception of copyright has become familiar in Japan mainly through newspaper coverage of copyright issues concerning records, tapes, and computer programs. }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'93}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 But still the Japanese people do not take well to copyright, or more properly, to the idea of the individual right. Generally speaking, to claim one}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \rquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 s right is regarded as dishonourable or undignified, especially when the right involves money.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid12127175 \'94}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  T\'f4
ru Mitsui, \lquote Copyright and music in Japan\rquote , in Simon Frith (ed.), Music and copyright (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1993), p.141-142.}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\f1\insrsid11107820\charrsid12127175 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 Indonesia }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid9918276\charrsid5465620 and its culture }{\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid2381475\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Across rural parts of Indonesia}{\insrsid1969595\charrsid2429221  (}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 where most Indonesians live}{\insrsid1969595\charrsid2429221 )}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
, the governing laws are known as }{\i\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 adat}{\i\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  or customary law. Most such laws in the f
ourth most populous country in the world do not make a distinction between tangible property, such as land, and intangible property, such as that which might exist elsewhere in a book or song, and }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 adat}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  law }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 does not accommodate intellectual property law}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  a
nd, for example, does not recognise the sale of intangible goods.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s22\ql \li0\ri0\sb20\sl-200\slmult0\nowidctlpar\noline
\tqr\tx480\tx720\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f182\fs16\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\cs18\f56\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\f56\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Simon Butt, \lquote Intellectual Property in Indonesia: A Problematic Legal Transplant\rquote , 24 European Intellectual Property Review 2002, 429, p. 434.}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid7746312\charrsid2429221 As a result, }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 attempts to enforce copyright laws and their accompanying ideology are likely to fail in crafts such as batik; traditions of creativity are not the same in Indonesia as they are in Indiana. As one writer explains, }{
\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  Indonesian traditional communities often create}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 for reasons which preclu
de commercialisation. Some see their work as a symbol of dedication to art itself or a national treasure\'85Many local creators are happy to allow}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
their works to be imitated and duplicated without their consent and are proud\'85if their work}{\insrsid13315861 s}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  are copied, often because they believe that they have assisted the community in some way.}{
\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid. p. 434. }}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  For example, a singer of traditional Indonesian music was very happy when his music was copied }{\insrsid13315861 e}
{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 n masse in 1997 and was reported not to be interested in launching a copyright infringement action. 
\par }{\b\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid11107820\charrsid998867 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734278}
3.4 Culture and creativity in the Arab countries{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734278} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par Because of its non-material (or intangible) character, the concept of intelle
ctual property is a new and foreign one to most cultures across the globe. Intellectual property emerged with the development of industries that heavily depended on innovation; ideas were made more valuable than the materials that were used for disseminat
ing }{\insrsid3101352\charrsid2429221 a}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
nd reproducing them. The concept of intellectual property is also closely related to the concept of individuality and capitalist-based societies that cherish individualism were responsible for introducing and adopting it. But traditional societies kept
 regarding it }{\insrsid3101352\charrsid2429221 -}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 and many still do}{\insrsid7603589  \endash  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 as a very strange and foreign concept. 
\par 
\par Islam, for instance, emerged in a merchant society, where the concept of property was the basis of economic activity. Obviously, at this time, a merchant society was concerned with material property and the necessity }{\insrsid3101352\charrsid2429221 of }
{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 respect}{\insrsid3101352\charrsid2429221 ing }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 this type of property has been stated in the Koran.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
By contrast, the concept of intellectual property is today subject to debate among Muslims because it contradicts community interests. As in other tradit
ional societies, individual interests are secondary to those of the wider community. Such societies commonly consider knowledge as something that cannot be the private property of an individual and, moreover, that no one can }{
\insrsid3101352\charrsid2429221 or should }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 prevent others from benefiting from knowledge.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par }{\insrsid10841002\charrsid2429221 Although }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
intellectual property considers cultural production as solely an individual achievement, traditional forms of artistic expressions, such as those occurring in the Arab world, do not fit into this scheme. Here are a few examples:
\par 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 a)\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx-360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls42\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Lebanese folk poetry, known as Zajal, is performed in a public challenge between two grou}{\insrsid13315861 
ps of poets who improvise short}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  poems satirising each other; each group bases its inspiration }{\insrsid3809653 on }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 a sentence presented by the opposing group.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 In this traditional competition, the creation involved is a collective process developed through dialogue.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \qj \li360\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid861408 {\insrsid10901698\charrsid2429221 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 b)\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx0\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls42\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Traditional Arabic music, especially that }{\insrsid10841002\charrsid2429221 which }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 us}{
\insrsid10841002\charrsid2429221 es}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  the }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Oud}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  
(a kind of lute), is mainly based on improvisation during a live performance and is very similar to a conversation between two of more persons. Music is performed by a }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 takht}{\insrsid10166911 
\rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 , a small group of musicians capable of improvisation on one theme. Each musician builds on what the last person played; the musicians wander, move away, and then come back to the main theme.}{\insrsid16018739  }
{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \qj \li360\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid861408 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
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\jclisttab\tx0\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls42\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
In solo singing performances, a dynamic interaction arises between the singer and his or her public. A kind of musical listening emotion, called }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Tarab}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 , creates a very special atmosphere which inspires the singer; this environment seems to be the main determinant of the success of the performance. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
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{\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft3912\shptop196\shpright8233\shpbottom2967\shpfhdr0\shpbxcolumn\shpbxignore\shpbypara\shpbyignore\shpwr4\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz4\shplid1030{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 202}}{\sp{\sn fFlipH}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFlipV}{\sv 0}}
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Developed countries underestimate the degree to which local institutions, traditional ideas and social values will resist a wholesale acceptance and application of the philosophy of intellectual property rights\'85.\'94
\par }{\f66\insrsid8483307 
\par }{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10439616 
\par }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10439616 Ruth Gana, \lquote Prospects for Developing Countries Under the TRIPs Agreement\rquote , 1999, 29 Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, 774.}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10439616 
\par }}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt4\dptxbx\dptxlrtb{\dptxbxtext\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10439616 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10439616 \'93Developed countries underestimate the degree to which local institutions, traditional ideas and social values will resist a wholesale acceptance and application of the philosophy of intellectual property rights\'85
.\'94
\par }{\f66\insrsid8483307 
\par }{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10439616 
\par }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10439616 Ruth Gana, \lquote Prospects for Developing Countries Under the TRIPs Agreement\rquote , 1999, 29 Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law, 774.}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10439616 
\par }}\dpx3912\dpy196\dpxsize4321\dpysize2771\dpfillfgcr255\dpfillfgcg255\dpfillfgcb255\dpfillbgcr255\dpfillbgcg255\dpfillbgcb255\dpfillpat1\dplinew15\dplinecor0\dplinecog0\dplinecob0}}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
There are additional contradictions. Intellectual property is based on a clear definition of authorship, particularly individual authorship, and draws on, indeed establishes, a division of labour between creators (composers, performers, authors, etc.). Th
is distinction is not, however, an adequate one for the actual process of creation invol}{\insrsid3809653 ved in many forms of expression}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
. Creative works are produced by finding inspiration in previous works and by borrowing various phrases and expressions from them. In such
 cases, the Western conception of authorship is not an accurate or applicable one. During improvisation, Arab musicians recall musical phrases from a common heritage, found either in the public or private domain.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Putting limitations and restrictions on this kind of inspiration by the privatisation of this heritage could lead to sterilizing the creative process. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par Modern forms of expression began and flourished in Arab countries by borrowing from Western productions. Theatre, for example, was not part of the
 Arab tradition and began in Arab countries by translating and adapting French and English plays. Many Egyptian movies were inspired or directly adapted from American films of the 1940s and 50s. Caricature developed in Arabic newspapers by borrowing figur
es and scenes from one another or sometimes from Western newspapers. These borrowings were integrated in the Arab culture, thereby helping it to renew itself. }{\insrsid14305830 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par Some works are considered by a society as a common heritage, even though their creator is still 
alive. For the Palestinians who have lost their country, poems are the main expression of their national identity; the poems of Mahmoud Darwiche, for instance, played a major role in the construction of a national consciousness.}{
\cf2\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 His poems constitute a comm
on heritage and are told by nearly everybody at any occasion. Many composers put his poems into their musical works without even asking for the consent of the poet who, in turn, never asked them for any royalties. To make such claims would be considered r
ather unethical. When the poems of Mahmoud Darwiche are put into music and sung by Marcel Khalifah or any other great Arab musician, this process results in increased popularity for both the poet and the composer.}{\cf9\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 The personal benefits are shared by both th
e composer and the poet and this seems to be enough to motivate them to further creativity. Furthermore, if the primary motivation for creation is the diffusion of a message, the objective is far better achieved without imposing intellectual property righ
ts and restrictions. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid9907608\charrsid5465620 Copyright }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid2381475\charrsid5465620 is }{\i\f1\fs24\insrsid9907608\charrsid861408 not}{\f1\fs24\insrsid9907608\charrsid5465620  a pre-condition of creativity
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid861408 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid9907608\charrsid5465620 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 In fact, we can say that copyright law is not a necessary pre-condition for creative works to be made. Nor are Western conceptions transferable because the context is very different. In 
the Arab tradition since the pre-Islamic period, poetry was usually subject to public competitions and performances without any financial incentives available.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
In the contemporary period, publishers in the Arab book industry often omit to pay royalties to 
authors whose works they have published. In order to avoid paying 10% to 12% of the proceeds which are due to the author, the publisher does not declare the actual number of reprints that have been made. A}{\insrsid11815104\charrsid5465620 lthough }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 writers often complain justifiably about th
e dishonesty of publishers, this does not discourage them from writing and editing. Even a famous writer like Nagib Mahfouz needs to have a regular job and a salary; he cannot live from the proceeds of his work, although many of his books have been }{
\insrsid11815104\charrsid5465620 turned into }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 very successful films. Even though royalties paid to authors are small when compared to other kind}{\insrsid3809653 s}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 of royalties, especially those available from translation work, intellectuals prefer writing their own work}{\insrsid3809653 s rather than translating work}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 s written by other authors. In other words, they prefer seeking 
}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 fame}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  instead of monetary rewards. }{\insrsid3428992\charrsid5465620 
\par 
\par Meanwhile }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 in the music sector}{\insrsid3428992\charrsid5465620 ,}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  it is impossible to stop widespread }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 piracy
}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 . Some Lebanese musicians put their recordings on the market at
 a very low price so that they can be certain that the musical quality of the recording remains acceptable. Yet even this practice does not succeed in}{\insrsid7494538  restraining the market for }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 illegal copies.}{
\insrsid3428992\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 The operation of the music industry reveals }{\insrsid15098020\charrsid5465620 in other ways }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 how 
the copyright system is simply not working in Arab countries. Because the Arabic music market is monopolised by a small number of producers, the majority of creative musicians and composers produce their work at their own expense and }{\insrsid7494538 on}
{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  their own initiative. They alone are the ones who bear any financial risks. Once the work is completed and recorded, they then }{\insrsid7494538 sign a }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
contract with a distributor to sell their recordings. As a result of this arrangement, the distributor gets all th}{\insrsid7494538 e benefits and has }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 exclusiv
e control over the number of copies reproduced and sold. In fact, it would be foolhardy for Arab composers and musicians to rely on the sales of their CDs as a way to make a decent income. Instead, they can only count on the income which is gained from pu
blic performances of their works. 
\par 
\par The establishment of a branch of the Societe des Auteurs, Compositeurs et Editeurs de Musique (SACEM) in Beirut, the heart of musical life for the Arab market, has not improved the economic s
ituation of musicians. Since it was impossible to collect royalties every time music was played, SACEM decided that it made more sense to charge television and radio stations and restaurants a fixed amount of money each year for the right to broadcast and
 
play recorded music. Yet, despite this system, only two of the eight television stations and only a few radio stations actually pay royalties due to SACEM; restaurants, which play music to attract Arab tourists, never pay their royalties. Thus, after subt
racting SACEM administrative expenses and dividing the money between composers, authors and musicians, the artists get very little of what they are supposed to get and certainly not even enough to cover the expenses for registering a single new song. 

\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid5899883\charrsid5465620 Rest
ricting artistic expression 
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\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
Additionally, the copyright system restricts the communication of intellectual works and artistic expressions within the Arab world. Examine what happens in the Arab publishing market where translations are rare. A recent Huma
n Development Report published by the United Nations Development Programme states that only 330 titles are translated per year for the entire Arab market. Arab publishers say that royalties they are required to pay to Western publishers are far too high i
n comparison to the price of an Arab book. 
\par 
\par There are other problems and contradictions. In 2003, the famous Lebanese composer Gabriel Yared was hired to create the musical score for the motion picture }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 Troy}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 .}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 However after Warner Bros., the American movie
 studio, rejected his musical score, the company refused to allow Mr. Yared to finish mixing and producing his score; as a result, the score is not available for purchase by the general public. }{\insrsid15098020\charrsid5465620 
\par 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 Training and learning in other cultural fields are also hamp
ered by copyright restrictions, once again linked with financial constraints. Students in the Lebanese audiovisual schools cannot afford to pay royalties for the use of audiovisual archives needed for their graduating projects.}{
\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par 
\par We can conclude then that 
existing intellectual property regimes, and copyright in particular, reinforces the market power of cultural products owned and packaged by large corporations and, in the process, seriously damages creativity and diversity in production in the Arab world.
}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
The large Arab-owned corporations which dominate the musical market here can afford to challenge piracy, to pay royalties to Western entertainment conglomerates, and to hire performers at very high prices. The Lebanese musical sector, by contrast, simply 
c
annot compete and, as a result, three large Arab corporations have a stranglehold over musical production. In fact, due to the widespread pirating that is now occurring, producers often refuse to produce a work unless they can be assured that 100,000 copi
es will be sold within weeks of it first appearing on the market ( in other words, before the illegal copies invade the market).}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
This system kills all the artistic creation to the sole benefit of very popular and mass music.
\par 
\par These corporations have monopol
ized all the stages of production, from creation, to distribution and to broadcasting. They produce video-clips, own TV channels, organise shows, finance stars, recruit programs, and create a vertically-integrated chain that it is very difficult for }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 outsiders}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  to break into. At the same time, these large media corporations create and}{
\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 shape the tastes of the audience by imposing American style and out-of- context products, leading artists to have unrealistic dreams}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  \endash  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 unrealistic except for a very few}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  \endash  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 of individual success. They have power to impose their terms and conditions on t}{\insrsid4023325 
he artists and to eliminate who}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 ever they do not want. They also corrupt artists with extraordinary and disproportiona}{\insrsid4023325 te}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 amounts of money. There are no limits or controls on these enterprises and no requirement to protect creative diversity. The market is flooded by uniform and generally bland cultural products, usually at the expense of non-commercial artworks.}{
\insrsid14305830\charrsid5465620 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
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3.5 Traditional/indigenous knowledge and copyright}{\b0\fs28\insrsid16187988\charrsid12479367 : a complex issue.}{\b0\fs28\insrsid16018739\charrsid12479367 {\*\bkmkend _Toc135734279} }{\b0\fs28\insrsid11107820\charrsid12479367 
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{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\shptxt \pard\plain \s28\qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid9788576 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid5717530 
The Lies and Thefts Just Never End
\par }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid5717530 They came for our land, for what grew\line or could be grown on it, for the resources in it,\line and for our clean air and pure water.\line They stole these things from us, and in the taking\line 
they also stole our free ways\line and the best of our leaders, killed\line in battle or assassinated. And }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid8277946 now, after all that,\line they\rquote ve come for the very last of our possessions;\line 
now they want our pride, our history,\line our spiritual traditions.\line They want to rewrite and remake these things,\line to claim them for themselves.\line The lies and thefts just never end.}{\i\f66\insrsid8483307 
\par }\pard \s28\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8277946 {\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid8277946 
\par }\pard\plain \qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid9010716 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid8277946 Margo Thunderbird, }{
\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid15621248 Native American writer (1988) quoted in Ward Churchill, From a}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid15621248  }{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid15621248 Native Son: Selected Essays in Indigenism, 1985-1995}{
\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid8277946  (Boston: South End Press, 1996)}{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid8277946 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8277946 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt5\dptxbx\dptxlrtb{\dptxbxtext\pard\plain \s28\qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid9788576 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid5717530 The Lies and Thefts Just Never End
\par }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid5717530 They came for our land, for what grew\line or could be grown on it, for the resources in it,\line and for our clean air and pure water.\line They stole these things from us, and in the taking\line 
they also stole our free ways\line and the best of our leaders, killed\line in battle or assassinated. And }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid8277946 now, after all that,\line they\rquote ve come for the very last of our possessions;\line 
now they want our pride, our history,\line our spiritual traditions.\line They want to rewrite and remake these things,\line to claim them for themselves.\line The lies and thefts just never end.}{\i\f66\insrsid8483307 
\par }\pard \s28\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8277946 {\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid8277946 
\par }\pard\plain \qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid9010716 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid8277946 Margo Thunderbird, }{
\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid15621248 Native American writer (1988) quoted in Ward Churchill, From a}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid15621248  }{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid15621248 Native Son: Selected Essays in Indigenism, 1985-1995}{
\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid8277946  (Boston: South End Press, 1996)}{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid8277946 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8277946 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}\dpx3840\dpy1050\dpxsize4512\dpysize5016\dpfillfgcr255\dpfillfgcg255\dpfillfgcb255\dpfillbgcr255\dpfillbgcg255\dpfillbgcb255\dpfillpat1\dplinew15\dplinecor0\dplinecog0\dplinecob0}}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
There are significant problems facing groups who seek to protect traditional knowledge in the contemporary information age.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Thomas Greaves notes}{\insrsid3174881\charrsid2429221  that }{
\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid3174881\charrsid2429221 [t]}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 he very cultural heritage that gives Indigenous peoples their identity, now far more t
han in the past, is under real or potential assault from those who would gather it up, strip away its honoured meanings, convert it to a product, and sell it.}{\insrsid3174881\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
Each time that happens the cultural heritage itself dies a little, and with it its people.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Tho
mas Greaves, Tribal Rights, in Stephen B. Brush and Doreen Stabinsky, (eds.) Valuing Local Knowledge: Indigenous People and Intellectual Property Rights, (Washington D.C.: Island Press, 1996), p. 25. }}}{\cs31\super\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 While, as we will discuss later, it is not always outsiders }{\insrsid3174881\charrsid2429221 who are }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
attempting to commodify knowledge, in many cases, the appropriation of knowledge and culture is perceived by }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid4076126 those trying to adhere to a traditional way of life as a new form of cultural genocide.}{
\insrsid16018739\charrsid4076126  }{\insrsid14751534\charrsid4076126 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid4076126 
\par }\pard\plain \s16\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tqc\tx4153\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langfenp1033\insrsid11107820\charrsid4076126 
The United Nations declared 1993 the International Year for }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langfenp1033\insrsid4076126 the }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langfenp1033\insrsid11107820\charrsid4076126 World}{
\lang2057\langfe1033\langfenp1033\insrsid10166911\charrsid4076126 \rquote }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langfenp1033\insrsid1190135 s Indigenous People}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langfenp1033\insrsid11107820\charrsid4076126 , giving }{
\lang2057\langfe1033\langfenp1033\insrsid1190135 i}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langfenp1033\insrsid11107820\charrsid4076126 ndigenous peoples throughout the world a forum in which to raise concerns.}{
\cs18\lang2057\langfe1033\super\langfenp1033\insrsid11107820\charrsid4076126 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Michael Blakeney, \lquote 
Global Intellectual Property Rights: Boundaries of Access and Enforcement: Panel II: The Law and Policy of Protecting Folklore, Traditional Knowledge, and Genetic Resources,\rquote 
 Fordham Intellectual Property Media & Entertainment Law Journal, 12, Spring, 2002, pp. 762-763.}}}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langfenp1033\insrsid16018739\charrsid4076126  }{\lang2057\langfe1033\langfenp1033\insrsid11107820\charrsid4076126 
Indigenous voices raise concerns regarding the way culture is appropriated and the chasm between protecting culture and the commodification brought on by intellectual property rights.}{\lang2057\langfe1033\langfenp1033\insrsid16018739\charrsid4076126  }{
\lang2057\langfe1033\langfenp1033\insrsid11107820\charrsid4076126 As Greaves points out, 
\par }{\f87\fs20\lang2057\langfe1033\langfenp1033\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid861408 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 
Indigenous societies are seeking much more often to protect knowledge that identifies sacred lands and cemeteries, that l
ocates sources of ceremonial and craft supplies, that draws on oral tradition and archaeological evidence to build a case for land claims, that preserves spiritual wisdom and ceremonies, and that accords respect for physical things and insights that shoul
d not be treated simply as grist for personal enrichment in the game of capitalism.}{\cs18\i\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Greaves, op. cit., pp. 28-29. The effort to protect a broad range of rights over traditional culture is evident. See: Laurie Anne Whitt, Mere Roberts, Waerete Norman, and Vicki Grieves, \lquote 
Belonging to the Land: Indigenous Knowledge Systems and the Natural World\rquote , Oklahoma City University Law Review, 26, Summer 2001, pp. 701-743; Russell L. Barsh, \lquote Grounded Visions: Native American Conceptions of Landscapes and Ceremony
\rquote  , St. Thomas Law Review, 13, 127-154 Fall 2000, p. 127.}}}{\i\insrsid16018739\charrsid861408  }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid9716283\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 It is within this context that a discussion of intellectual property and indigenous knowledge must take place.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
The issues at stake are important both culturally and politically.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 While there is no single answer, it is the general opinion of the Copy/South group that copyright is }{
\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 not }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 an appropriate form of protection for traditional artistic and cultural production.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
However, as the following example illustrates, some sort of protection is necessary. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 Traditional }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid70316\charrsid5465620 m}{\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 usic as the }{\f1\fs24\insrsid70316\charrsid5465620 supposed}{\f1\fs24\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\f1\fs24\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid70316\charrsid5465620 Heritage of }{\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 Mankind}{\f1\fs24\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid861408 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par Back in 1996, a German rock group named Enigma had a hit near the top of the international pop charts for more than six months.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
Return to Innocence}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  sold more than five million copies world-wide, put the term }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 world-beat}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  on the musical map, and even was featured as background music for advertisements promoting the 1996 Olympic Games in Atlanta.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 Return to Innocence}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 , however, was NOT Enigma}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 s original work and the background to this musical rip-off reveals a serious limitation of copyright for countries of the South, especially for indigenous groups.
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 
\par Briefly, here is what happened}{\insrsid5253529\charrsid861408 : }{\cs18\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s30\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  For further details, see Angela Riley, \lquote Recovering Collectivity: G
roups Rights to Intellectual Property in Indigenous Communities\rquote , 18 Cardozo Arts and Entertainment Law Journal 2000, 175. }}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 
\par 
\par A group of more than 30 indigenous singers from Taiwan was invited by the French Ministry of Culture to perform Taiwanese tribal songs at concerts across Europe.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid861408  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 
The French Ministry recorded the concerts and issued a CD which the German music magnate Michael Cretu (}{\insrsid6767792\charrsid861408 a.k.a.}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408  }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 
Enigma}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 ) heard and liked very much.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid861408  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 He decided to use significant sections on his own musical recordings: to acc
omplish this, Cretu purchased the rights to this music from the French Ministry.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid861408  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 When recorded by Enigma, this music was called Enigma}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \rquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 s }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 Return to Innocence}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 .}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid861408  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 As for the Taiwanese folk singers, they received neither recognition nor financial compensation; in fact, they were not even told about any of these dealings.
\par 
\par Under current copyright doctrine}{\insrsid15433649\charrsid5465620 , }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 what the French Ministry and Enigma did was perfectly legal, if morally abhorrent.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 Under }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 classic}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 copyright theory (and the practice of the Berne Convention and TRIPS), a work cannot be protected unless it is original, fixated (i.e. written down) and created by individual (or perhaps by joint}{\insrsid15864916 ) authors.}{
\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 In the case of this Taiwanese musical work, it was not }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 original}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  (in the Wes}{\insrsid15864916 tern copyright sense of the wor}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 d)}{\insrsid4553067\charrsid5465620 , }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
it was not written down as it arose from an oral story-telling tradition, and }{\insrsid11810611\charrsid5465620 it }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 was the product of a communal indigenous culture, and not as the }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 
\lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 romantic author}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 conception behind copyright theory suggests, the creation of a individual starving composer (or author) living in a garret.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 As }{\insrsid15433649\charrsid5465620 An}{
\insrsid13117368\charrsid5465620 gela }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 Riley comments, }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 
indigenous works fail to fulfil individualistic notions of property rights that underlie the structure of Western law\'85}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s30\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Riley, op cit. 177-178. }}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408  
\par 
\par While the Taiwanese singers were ultimately credited for their contributions to }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 Return to Innocence,}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 
 for them nothing like innocence was gained.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid861408  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 The intent of the original tour of Taiwanese singers was to hig
hlight a dying traditional culture and the fact this music was appropriated and commodified by western singers highlights the problems emerging around the issue of traditional knowledge.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid861408  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 

\par 
\par Until recently, traditional knowledge was seen as a }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 raw material}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408  
within the intellectual property system \endash  part of the }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 common heritage of mankind.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \rquote }{\insrsid16018739\charrsid861408  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 Traditional knowledge remained outside intellectual property laws because }{\cs32\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 the commonly accepted property rights of patent and/or copyright did not seem to apply.}{
\cs32\insrsid16018739\charrsid861408  }{\cs32\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 Instead of
 thinking about the possibility that Indigenous groups might have alternative property models governing their knowledge, many simply assumed the knowledge shared with them by Indigenous groups was free for the taking.}{
\cs32\insrsid16018739\charrsid861408  }{\cs32\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 While attitudes are changing as a resu
lt of the growing resistance by Indigenous groups, there is still a sentiment that unless it can be defined as intellectual property then it is open for exploitation.}{\cs32\insrsid16018739\charrsid861408  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid861408 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 There are a series of important questions to consider.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
First what constitutes traditional knowledge?}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 Who should }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 own}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  this knowledge?}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 How should it be protected if copyright and patent law is not utilized?}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 We must also ask ourselves whether we should use the language of property to respond to a problem caused by extending property boundaries, or are there other ways?}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 Furthermore, are we making a mistake by using a romantic idea of the community? These questions and others are important when framing the issue of traditional knowledge.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Michael Brown provides a thoughtful anal
ysis of the dilemmas surrounding the issue of intellectual property and traditional knowledge. See: Michael F. Brown, Who Owns Native Culture? (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 2003)}}}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid8337446\charrsid5465620 Avoiding }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid6767792\charrsid5465620 essentialist approaches}{\f1\fs24\insrsid8337446\charrsid5465620  }{\f1\fs24\insrsid14305830\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid8337446\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid861408 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 As we discuss tradit
ional knowledge, it is also important to avoid essentialist claims regarding the relationship of traditional knowledge to the North.}{\insrsid5385001\charrsid5465620  (That is, we must }{\i\insrsid2757407\charrsid5465620 not}{
\insrsid2757407\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid5385001\charrsid5465620 use an analysis }{\insrsid2757407\charrsid5465620 that assumes all issues and all claims can be fitted into neat }{\insrsid10636515\charrsid5465620 and }{\insrsid6572160\charrsid5465620 
fixed boxes}{\insrsid10636515\charrsid5465620  or categories.)}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
Generally speaking, the issue of traditional knowledge is framed as one where rich countries appropriate the knowledge of poor countries, which certainly takes place as the }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid4136786\charrsid5465620 
Return to Innocence}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid4136786\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 example above illustrates.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
However, focusing exclusively on }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 biopiracy,}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 where rich countries appropriate the wealth of the poor, allows us to disregard the fact that there is a larger debate over the commodification of knowledge taking place within indigenous communities }{\insrsid4136786\charrsid5465620 themselves}{
\insrsid329923\charrsid5465620 ; they are }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 not of a single mind about what should be done.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
Appropriation of traditional knowledge also takes place among traditional communities as one sector of the population chooses to commodify something that others seek to retain as uncommodified.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid861408 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 F
urthermore, we should avoid the essentialist view that there is no innovation going on in the South. When one speaks of traditional knowledge in the }{\insrsid4553067\charrsid5465620 g}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
lobal South, the underlying assumption tends to be that innovation happened thousands of years ago with cultures remaining in a sort of stasis since that time.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
Rosemary Coombe offers a description of this common assumption: 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid861408 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 
According to Fitzpatrick, it is one of modernity}{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 s myths that others live in worlds of static, uniform, and closed systems of meaning, whereas }{
\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \lquote }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 we}{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408  (a European, literate, and propertied male }{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \lquote }{
\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 we}{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408  in many cases) occupy a world of progress, differentiation, and openness.}{\i\insrsid16018739\charrsid861408  }{
\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 This }{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \lquote }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 white mythology}{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid861408 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 
 assumes that the West has law, order, rule, and reflective reason, whereas others have only violence, chaos, arbitrary tradition (mindless habit), or coercive despotism to govern social life.}{\cs18\i\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Rosemary Coombe, \lquote Contingent Articulations: A Critical Cultural Studies of Law,\rquote  in Austin Sarat and Thomas R. Kearns, (eds.), Law in the Domains of Culture (Ann
 Arbor. Michigan, USA: University of Michigan Press, 1998), pp. 25-26.}}}{\i\insrsid16018739\charrsid861408  }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid861408 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid861408 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par However, innovation is on-going in the }{\insrsid15626112\charrsid5465620 S}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 outh, especially in areas covered by copyright, the subject of this dossier.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 While patent-related claims are also important, they are not the focus of this dossier. }}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  Innovators in the }{\insrsid11810611\charrsid5465620 g}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
lobal South may have a different relationship with copyright and the underlying values associated with intellectual property which obscures from v
iew much of the innovation taking place because it has not yet been appropriated into the commodity structure of intellectual property.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Akalemwa Ngenda, \lquote The Nature of the International Intellectual Property System: Universal Norms and Values or Western Chauvinism?\rquote  Information & Communications Technology Law, Vol 14. 2005, p. 59-79.}}}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par 
\par One must also be aware that the politics of indigenous communities is complex and it is not necessarily the case that governments within the }{\insrsid15626112\charrsid5465620 g}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 lobal South speak for the ind
igenous communities within their borders.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
Furthermore, indigenous cultures exist throughout the developed world and are largely ignored in the debate over copyright happening in these countries.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
The complexity of sovereignty questions makes it difficult to know who speaks for traditional communities.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 Commodifying traditional knowledge can}{\insrsid1866848\charrsid5465620 
, for example, }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 be }{\insrsid1866848\charrsid5465620 used }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 as a vehicle for bringing revenue into a country.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Lakshmi Sarma, \lquote Biopiracy: Twentieth Century Imperialism in the Form of International Agreements\rquote , Temple International & Comparative Law Journal, 13, Spring 1999, p. 109.}}}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 States in the }{\insrsid1866848\charrsid5465620 g}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
lobal South may seek to appropriate traditional knowledge to support their own economic goals and it must remain clear that states do not always speak for the indigenous communities within their borders.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 For example, organizations like African Renaissance tend to focus on how to best exploit African traditional knowledge and avoid bio-piracy.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  \lquote 
The Simmering Debate on Intellectual Property in South Africa,\rquote  The African Times, Vol. 15. September 30, 2002, p. 19.}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par 
\par The lack of clarity at the state level may be one reason the World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) has become }{\insrsid1866848\charrsid5465620 one }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 focal point for discussion o}{\insrsid1866848\charrsid5465620 
f}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  traditional knowledge}{\insrsid1866848\charrsid5465620  issues}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 .}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Rosemary J. Coombe, \lquote Sixth Annual Tribal Sovereignty Symposium: The Recognition of Indigenous Peoples and Community Traditional Knowledge in International Law,\rquote  St. Thomas Law Review, 14, Winter 2001, pp. 275-276}}}{
\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 WIPO has provided a forum for indigenous communities to come together and speak to each other outside the }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
official}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  positions of their nation-states.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
While discussions in WIPO are still framed by property considerations, bypassing the nation-state and allowing for indigenous communities to speak directly to each other
 has provided these groups with an opportunity to articulate their concerns with the concept of intellectual property and seek measures to protect what is called }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
traditional knowledge}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  from appropriation as public domain knowledge.
\par }{\insrsid7554260\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid10627104\charrsid5465620 Four possible strategi
es being considered}{\f1\fs24\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\f1\fs24\insrsid10627104\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid276910\charrsid276910 
\par }\pard\plain \s26\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 A tension exists in the }{
\insrsid8413005\charrsid2429221 g}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 lobal South regarding the use of intellectual property to protect goods.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 This tension suggests that there is no common answer }{
\insrsid8413005\charrsid2429221 as to }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 how the }{\insrsid8413005\charrsid2429221 g}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 lobal South views traditional knowledge or how it should be used or protected.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 The following are all strategies, or possible strategies, used by the }{\insrsid8413005\charrsid2429221 g}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 lobal South to protect what they see as their traditional knowledge. }{
\insrsid11107820 
\par }{\insrsid8139661\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid13053155 First}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid13053155 , indigenous}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  communities may appropriate the language of intellectual property.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
During the recent W}{\insrsid15298483 orld Summit on the Information}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
 Society (WSIS), for example, people from indigenous communities were asking for more protection because their intellectual property was being appropriated. 
Thus, indigenous groups adopted the language of their enemies in an effort to solidify their own forms of protection. However, as one participant at the Copy/South workshop }{\insrsid8413005\charrsid2429221 in August 2005 }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 noted, many of these traditional representatives were paid by western governments to push for a stronger intellectual property agenda.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820 
\par }{\insrsid8139661\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
However, in many cases it is too late to resist the commodification of knowledge since many indigenous peoples have already seen their culture and science appropriated. Thus, }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid13053155 a }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid13053155 
second}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  str
ategy could be developed to deal with these issues. In this case, agreements must be reached regarding how knowledge is used and profits will be shared. It is important to distinguish between outsiders appropriating knowledge as part of what they perceive
 to be the }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 public domain}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
 and insiders using knowledge to further innovation within the context of the culture. Intellectual property laws can be helpful in creating a barrier to outside intervention while attempting to protect a common good on the inside.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 It is possible to appropriate the idea of copyright to create what David Bollier calls }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 property on the outside, commons on the inside.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{
\cs18\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  David Bollier, Silent Theft: The Private Plunder of our Common Wealth, (New York: Routledge, 2003), p. 179.}}}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
The idea behind Bollier}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 s statement is that one can utilize the language of property rights to protect a commons from the exploitation of commercial forces.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Otherwise, while those within a commons may feel free to share their knowledge, they are easily exploitable by commercial interests who seek to colonize aspects of the commons.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid15747122\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s26\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
However, translating traditional knowledge into property rights even while trying to critique a system of property rights has its own problems}{\insrsid2235407\charrsid2429221  and, moreover, u}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
sing the language of intellectual property to critique a form of commercialising knowledge will }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 not }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 lead to the best possible future.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Whether the property right is individual or collective, the nature of commodifying cultural content will lead to the same problems of exploitation and the decline of what many cultures still hold to be sacred.}{
\insrsid11107820 
\par }{\insrsid15621248\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Indigenous people argue that it is their cultural heritage and therefore they have the right to prevent monopolization by outside forces.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
Prohibiting access to knowledge and the free exchange of culture by creating new types of monopolies is certainly one strategy, but the larger problem is the ability to exclude others.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
Using the same tools and language as the status quo to exclude others does not solve the problem of barriers to knowledge.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820 
\par }{\insrsid8139661\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 On the other hand, }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 the heritage of mankind}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
 language is used to appropriate traditional knowledge for commercial exploitation leaving many feeling exploited.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
However, responding by monopolizing what was otherwise knowledge existing outside of property rights simply reproduces the problem.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\cs32\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Claims re
jecting the idea of intellectual property as yet another form of exploitation have been made by some seeking to protect the importance of traditional }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 knowledge.}{\cs18\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Victoria Tauli-Corpuz, \lquote Biotechnology and Indigenous Peoples,\rquote  in Brian Tokar, (ed)., Redesig
ning Life: The Worldwide Challenge to Genetic Engineering, (New York and London: Zed Books, 2001), p. 253. Tauli-Corpuz who works in the Philippines with the Indigenous Peoples\rquote 
 International Centre for Policy Research and Education argues that the views o
f Indigenous peoples on the issue of intellectual property are substantively different from other groups. Because Indigenous groups have long been marginalized by market-based economic systems it is difficult for many to believe that a system like intelle
ctual property rights will be of use. }}}{\insrsid4018799\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Another solution is necessary.}{\insrsid4018799 
\par }{\insrsid8139661\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 If we agree that the problem with intellectual property is that it excludes people, then the goal is to }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 avoid}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  reproducing this type of exclusion.}{
\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 The solution we seek is protection from being excluded.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Extending the concept of property rights to group rights does }{
\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 not}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  make the underlying concepts of property any better.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
The value that should be endorsed consistently across all forms of knowledge is that of non-commodified sharing.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 It is p
ernicious to put exchange value over use value and the copyright system puts exchange value over all other values. }{\insrsid11107820 
\par }{\insrsid8139661\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 We must avoid}{\insrsid15211296\charrsid2429221 
, therefore, }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 what one Copy/South contributor aptly pointed to as the problem of }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 King Midas}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 .}{
\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 For King Midas, everything he touched turned to gold and this reflects the problem of commodification. When everything is privati}{\insrsid15211296\charrsid2429221 s}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 ed
}{\insrsid15211296\charrsid2429221  (}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 including money, life, and values}{\insrsid9259844\charrsid2429221 ), }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
it turns otherwise non-quantifiable things into commodities. This value system is being imposed on other societies.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
Unfortunately, these other societies very often have their own value system that is more human and ecologically compatible, but they loose this culture and way of thinking because they adapt to the copyright system.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Even discussing preserving traditional knowledge through a system of }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 group rights}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  or }{
\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 collective property}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  is problematic because it introduces }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 rights}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  and the commodification of culture into areas that may as of yet remain uncommodified.
\par 
\par A }{\b\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 third}{\b\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 strategy that could be taken by those inter
ested in protecting traditional knowledge is to follow the observations offered here and avoid commodification altogether.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
Protection of traditional knowledge has emerged as a problem because copyright law is used to appropriate a previously uncommodified 
knowledge into the commodity structure. Resisting commodification altogether is a legitimate strategy; works of traditional knowledge, both scientific and cultural, should not be treated as commodities and thus should remain outside the profit structure. 
This strategy fits with the way many indigenous peoples articulate their relationship to traditional knowledge and culture: as sacred and not for sale.
\par 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Finally, a }{\b\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 fourth}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
 important strategy is to recognize that the model of mutual aid often associated with the culture and science of traditional knowledge }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 should be the model for the rest of the world}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
. Instead of seeking to wrap traditional knowledge into the package of western intellectual property laws, we should be actively trying to deconstruct }{\insrsid9259844\charrsid2429221 and break apart }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
the western notion of authorship, ownership in a fixed medium, or any medium at all. The model of traditional knowledge}{\insrsid4987372\charrsid2429221  is that }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
music, medicine, art, religion and science can be locally protected (and traditional knowledge is not without its property regimes, they are just very different}{\insrsid9259844\charrsid2429221  ones}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 )}{
\insrsid4159905\charrsid2429221 ; }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
but proprietary values associated with contemporary intellectual property laws should be deconstructed. Instead of putting traditional knowledge into a western property model, we should begin putting western property into the traditional knowledge model}{
\insrsid4159905\charrsid2429221 , that is, }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 a model }{\insrsid6767792\charrsid2429221 which emphasises}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  mutual aid and cultural sharing over commodification. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid1320029\charrsid15740382 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734280}3.6 The }{
\b0\fs28\insrsid7605862 c}{\b0\fs28\insrsid1320029\charrsid15740382 riminalisation}{\b0\fs28\insrsid4003147\charrsid15740382  }{\b0\fs28\insrsid1320029\charrsid15740382 of }{\b0\fs28\insrsid7605862 c}{\b0\fs28\insrsid1320029\charrsid15740382 
opying in the South and the }{\b0\fs28\insrsid10166911\charrsid15740382 \lquote }{\b0\fs28\insrsid7605862 p}{\b0\fs28\insrsid1320029\charrsid15740382 iracy}{\b0\fs28\insrsid10166911\charrsid15740382 \rquote }{\b0\fs28\insrsid1320029\charrsid15740382  }{
\b0\fs28\insrsid7605862 q}{\b0\fs28\insrsid1320029\charrsid15740382 uestion{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734280} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid1320029\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid14441443\charrsid5465620 Introduction
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid14441443\charrsid576 
\par }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 The word }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 piracy}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
 is at the top of the agenda of many Western governments. In June 2005, for example, the European Communities circulated a }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
Communication on the Enforcement of Intellectual Property Rights}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  (IP/C/W/448) that emphasised }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
the worrying evolution of counterfeiting and piracy worldwide.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'94}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  A March 2006 follow-up document fretted}{\insrsid14424337\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
that enforcement measures provided under the terms of the TRIPS Agreement were not having the desired results and needed to be improved through increased surveillance efforts by Interpol, customs authorities, and other agencies. Curbing }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 piracy}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
 is rising up the agenda of some non-Western countries as well; in the latter case, their concerns are focusing on the }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 piracy }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 of the work of Western stars and sometimes the }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 piracy}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
 is of the work of popular local artists. What are we to make of the so-called }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 pirating}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
 of copyrighted products? 
\par 
\par Before we get into the question, however, one initial matter needs to be cleared up. Is }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 piracy}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
 the correct word to use to define this phenomenon? If not, why are the words }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 piracy}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  and }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 pirates}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
 being used so widely by Western governments, large media corporations, the media itself, and others?}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 To answer the second question first,}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 we would do well to remember the words of noted African-American author Toni Morrison: }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 \'85.definitions belong\'85to the definers-not the defined.}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'94}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  }{\cs18\b\super\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Toni Morrison}{\i\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 , }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
Beloved (London: Cahtto Windus, 1987), p. 190.}}}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  Calling people who use copyrighted works without the permission of their owners }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 pirates}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  is a crude, but often effective, rhetorical device to cast such people as simply the contemporary version of the robbers and thieves who raided ships at sea in the d
ays of sail and made off with chests of gold and other booty. Indeed, today}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 s digital pirates are now often mentioned in the same breath as th}{\insrsid1469013\charrsid5465620 
ose }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 other contemporary }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 bad guys}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
: terrorists. One media sociologist has shown how, in the pre- and post-9/11 era, the activities of the terrorists, counterfeiters, and intellectual property }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 pirates}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid8852923\charrsid5465620 were}{\insrsid4003147\charrsid5465620  (}{\insrsid8852923\charrsid5465620 and }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 are}{
\insrsid4003147\charrsid5465620 )}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  regularly linked }{\insrsid1469013\charrsid5465620 together }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 in police statements. Sociologist Nitin Govil gives numerous examples of such }{
\i\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 unproven}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  claims, including: a) New York City}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 s Joint Terrorism Taskforce claimed }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 that profits from counterfeit T-shirt sales}{\insrsid3623856\charrsid5465620  \endash  }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 sold in the very shadows of the twin towers}{
\insrsid3623856\charrsid5465620  \endash  }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 helped fund the 1993 bombing of the World Trade Centre}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'94}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 ; b) }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 British detectives claim that }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 Pakistani DVDs account for 40% of anti-p
iracy confiscations in the UK and that profits from pirated versions of Love, Actually, and Master and Commander funnel back to the coffers of Pakistan-based Al Qaeda operatives. }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{
\cs18\b\super\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Nitin Govil, \lquote War in the Age of Pirate Reproduction\rquote , Sarai Reader 4, 2004, p.380
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\fs20\lang1040\langfe2057\langnp1040\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
HYPERLINK http://www.sarai.net/journal/04_pdf/50nitin.pdf }{\fs20\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b6000000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e00730061007200610069002e006e00650074002f006a006f00750072006e0061006c002f00300034005f007000640066002f00350030006e0069007400
69006e002e0070006400660000000a00000000}}}{\fldrslt {\fs20\lang1040\langfe2057\langnp1040\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.sarai.net/journal/04_pdf/50nitin.pdf}}}{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid12332877\charrsid5465620  }{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 Using the very language of }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 piracy}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
 conjures images of sea-faring, blood-thirsty brigands, who terrorise the innocent and are devoid of moral scruples\'85 and }{\insrsid12332877\charrsid5465620 links them to }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
their supposed cousins who shoot down civilian airliners today. As for the answer to the first question, any}{\insrsid4342514\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid15084296\charrsid5465620 serious student}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
 of copyright law knows copyright }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 piracy}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
 does not involve theft or any type of stealing; it is, at worst, unauthorised borrowing }{\insrsid16727459\charrsid5465620 because }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 the owner get}{\insrsid4342514\charrsid5465620 s}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
 to keep the original work. In other words, }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 pirating}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  a CD has }{\i\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
far different consequences}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid15084296\charrsid5465620 than stealing}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  a car.
\par 
\par This article begins with a backgrounder on the criminalisation of copying, explains how the stakes are often quite different in the South, and then looks at some wider ramifications, including critical cultural implications, of copyright }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 piracy.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  
\par }{\f1\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 The }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620 c}{\f1\fs24\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 riminalisation of }{\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620 c}{\f1\fs24\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 opying}{\f1\fs24\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\f1\fs24\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
\par The criminalisation of copying and the war on }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 piracy}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  will be familiar to 
many people in Western countries. Breaches of copyright were once matters largely handled by specialists and lawyers, and of little interest to us in the wider public. However, in recent years we}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 ve seen a relentless shift in which copying has been demonized, and become targeted with ever tougher criminal penalties. Well}{\insrsid16727459\charrsid5465620 -}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
known instances include the pursuit of those who use peer-to-peer (P2P) online file sharing networks such as Gnutella and Napster}{\insrsid16727459\charrsid5465620  (when it was first }{\insrsid6572160\charrsid5465620 established}{
\insrsid16727459\charrsid5465620 )}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 . We have been treated to th
e sight of corporate legal machines and police raiding parties let loose upon teenagers who choose to share their favourite music or video games with their like-minded peers and friends. This criminalisation process has been helped along by a slew of legi
slative measures against copyright }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 violation}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
 introduced by national governments and through international treaties and agreements, such as the Agreement on Trade-Related Intellectual Property (TRIPS) and the Council of Europe Convention on Cybercrime. 
\par 
\par This criminalisation process has also taken shape through the appearance of a bewildering array of private bodies and interest groups, created by copyright-holding corporations, who have taken it upon themselves to act as both self-appointed police and }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 moral educators}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
. They have unleashed a rhetorical onslaught aimed at curtailing copying by instilling fear and guilt:}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
parents are told that their children need to be watched, in case they turn into hardened criminals in the privacy of their bedrooms; copiers are dubbed }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 thieves}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 , and consumers of copied material are accused of helping fund terrorism and organised crime. 
\par 
\par Copyright holding corporations and their apologists will probably respond that the kinds of criminalisation noted above are an unfortunate necessity, and will }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 merely}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  restrict consumers}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  access to leisure and entertainment if they are unwilling and unable to pa}{
\insrsid1527513\charrsid5465620 y}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  for it. From this viewpoint, limiting access to }{\i\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 Grand Theft Auto}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  video games or the latest }{
\i\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 Coldplay}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  album hardly impinges upon individuals}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
 fundamental rights or entitlements. The position around copying and criminalisation in the South, however, is }{\insrsid1527513\charrsid5465620 often }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 very different. 
\par 
\par Consider one area in which the criminalisation process has gathered pace over the past few years, that of academi
c and educational publishing. Organisations such as the American Association of Publishers (AAP), proudly advertise their successes in staging armed raids against }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 copy shops}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  in developing countries where textbooks and other materials are reproduced. Such
 raids have occurred in countries such as India, Malaysia, Pakistan, the Philippines, Taiwan and Brazil. For example, they report with satisfaction that }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{\cf1\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
the owner of Chamunda Photocopy Center was arrested on the 5}{\fs19\cf1\up8\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 th}{\cf1\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  of April, 2004 in Mumbai, and authorities seized 500 copies of medical books from the establishment.}{
\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'94}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  The AAP also recently wrote en masse to the Presidents of hundreds of South Korean and Malaysian universities, }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 urging}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  them to stop on-campus copying of textbooks and other educational materials, and including in their missive the reminder that }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 commercial copyright violations}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  can result in prison sentences of up to five years. 
\par 
\par }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 {\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft3312\shptop-1021\shpright8352\shpbottom3215\shpfhdr0\shpbxcolumn\shpbxignore\shpbypara\shpbyignore\shpwr4\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz6\shplid1032
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\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\insrsid8483307 \'93}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid15740382 If it is a sin for the poor to steal from the rich, it must be a much bigger sin for the rich to steal from the poor. Don\rquote 
t rich countries pirate poor countries\rquote  best scientists, engineers, doctors, nurses and programmers? When global corporations come to operate in the Philippines, don\rquote t they p
irate the best people from local firms? If it is bad for poor countries like ours to pirate the intellectual property of rich countries, isn\rquote t it a lot worse for rich countries like the US to pirate our intellectuals?\tab 
\par 
\par In fact, we are benign enough to take only a copy, leaving the original behind; rich countries are so greedy that they take away the orig}{\f66\insrsid8483307 inals, leaving nothing behind.\'94}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid15740382 
\par 
\par }\pard \qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15621248 {\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid15740382 Roberto Verzola,}{\i\f66\insrsid8483307 \rquote }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid15740382  Pegging the World\rquote 
s Biggest}{\i\f66\insrsid8483307 \rquote }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid15740382 , 12 Earth Island Journal 41, 1997. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt6\dptxbx\dptxlrtb{\dptxbxtext\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16711716 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\f66\insrsid8483307 \'93}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid15740382 If it is a sin for the poor to steal from the rich, it must be a much bigger sin for the rich to steal from the poor. Don\rquote t rich countries pirate poor countries\rquote 
 best scientists, engineers, doctors, nurses and programmers? When global corporations come to operate in the Philippines, don\rquote t they p
irate the best people from local firms? If it is bad for poor countries like ours to pirate the intellectual property of rich countries, isn\rquote t it a lot worse for rich countries like the US to pirate our intellectuals?\tab 
\par 
\par In fact, we are benign enough to take only a copy, leaving the original behind; rich countries are so greedy that they take away the orig}{\f66\insrsid8483307 inals, leaving nothing behind.\'94}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid15740382 
\par 
\par }\pard \qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15621248 {\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid15740382 Roberto Verzola,}{\i\f66\insrsid8483307 \rquote }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid15740382  Pegging the World\rquote 
s Biggest}{\i\f66\insrsid8483307 \rquote }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid15740382 , 12 Earth Island Journal 41, 1997. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}\dpx3312\dpy-1021\dpxsize5040\dpysize4236\dpfillfgcr255\dpfillfgcg255\dpfillfgcb255\dpfillbgcr255\dpfillbgcg255\dpfillbgcb255\dpfillpat1\dplinew15\dplinecor0\dplinecog0\dplinecob0}}}}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
Such custodial sentences have also become increasingly commonplace as legal institutions in developing countries are exposed to massive political pressures and their governments are threatened with trade sanctions and other penalties i}{
\insrsid794173\charrsid5465620 f}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  they fail to uphold the copyrights of Western businesses}{\insrsid8857261\charrsid5465620 .}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  (}{\insrsid8857261\charrsid5465620 T}{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 hings are obviously not moving fast or hard enough for the AAP, who lament that }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 e}{\cf1\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
ven in cases of conviction, the fines are too low and prison sentences are almost nonexistent}{\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'94}{\cf1\insrsid8857261\charrsid5465620 .}{\cf1\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 )}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
 The onslaught of criminalisation is justified by claims that copying is }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 irreparably damaging the development and preservation of our literary talents and heritage}{
\insrsid8857261\charrsid5465620 .}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'94}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  Setting aside the question of who, precisely, is meant by }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 our}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 , we should note what is either repressed or denied by those who promote these }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 anti-piracy}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  measures. According to the AAP}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 s figures, the }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 top ten}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  countries for monetary losses to book piracy include Pakistan, India, the Philippines, Mexico, Indonesia and Thailand. 
\par 
\par This should come as no surprise, since one important thing they share in common is, quite simply, that all these countries are poor and struggling to attain economic and social development. They do so under conditions of gross inequality in trade relation
s with the advanced industrial world. The struggle for development and }{\insrsid794173\charrsid5465620 the }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 lift}{\insrsid794173\charrsid5465620 ing }{\insrsid6572160\charrsid5465620 of large}{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  populations out of poverty has to be driven by investment in education and training. Lack of access to educational materials places a block on such countries}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  abilit
y to educate and train their populations, with the consequence of blighting the life chances of millions. Without medical texts it is impossible to train doctors and nurses who can provide health care in parts of the world where disease and ill-health oft
e
n reach epidemic proportions; without access to scientific journals and books, they cannot train a generation of engineers who could design and build networks of clean water, sanitation, safe housing, affordable and sustainable transportation, and so on. 

\par 
\par In short, what is lost to individuals and nations through the criminalisation of copying is nothing less than access to the means for living a safe, healthy and dignified life. It is worth remembering that the }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 right to education}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  is upheld by Article 26 of the U.N.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
s Universal Declaration on Human Rights. To deny access to the means of education through the criminalisation of copying is tantamount to denying this right, and the rights and benefits that flow from it, to all peoples of the South.
\par }{\insrsid8918264\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 The wider
 ramifications of the }{\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620 \lquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 piracy}{\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620 \rquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620  issue in the South 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid1320029\charrsid5465620 
\par }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 Some of the many }{\insrsid1840412\charrsid576 other }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 issues related to copyright }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 piracy}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote 
}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  include:}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid576  }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
\par 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 1.\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx0\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls43\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 {
\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 One starting point when looking at the }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 piracy}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  issue is to underscore the fact that }{
\insrsid4670878\charrsid576 it is the very act }{\insrsid677837\charrsid576 of }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 pirating}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  Western-prod
uced cultural products }{\insrsid4670878\charrsid576 which }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
makes these Western cultural products immensely more popular and available in many poorer countries than they otherwise would be. There are people who claim that such }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 piracy}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  pushes aside, for instance, locally-made music from public attention and makes such music seem less important in the eyes of several layers of the population.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
\par }\pard \qj \li360\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid576 {\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 Is this an unexpected form of cultural imperialism? Perhaps this sounds exaggerated, but let}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 
\rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 s see what actually happens. In China, for instance, huge shipments of }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 remaindered}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  CDs of the five big global record companies illegally enter the market. This import, called in Chinese }{\i\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 dakos}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
, has two remarkable characteristics. First, the market becomes rather quickly inundated with these illegal imports. It is unlikely that record companies have immediately }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 remaindered}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  best-selling stars who would otherwise be bringing in large revenues fo
r them. Second, at the edge of the CDs a notch has been cut. The idea behind this notching is to make them unusable, but this is only the case for a little bit of music on the CD. If there are merely remainders, would it not be more effective to cut them 
in several pieces? One might start to think that cultural industries have a vested interest in promoting their artists in parts of the world where people }{\insrsid13070838\charrsid576 do }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 not have the money to }{
\insrsid13715130\charrsid576 purchase }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid13715130\charrsid576 legitimate}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid13715130\charrsid576  versions }{\insrsid6572160\charrsid576 at }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid6572160\charrsid576 normal}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  prices. Moreover, all that is }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 forbidden}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid3623856\charrsid576  \endash  }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 in this case, buying }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 pirated}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  CDs}{\insrsid15212567\charrsid576  \endash }{\insrsid16018739\charrsid576  }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
is considered by many as making them more desirable. Unproven allegations suggest some that record companies may themselves distribute both legal CDs and so called cheap }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 pirated}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  copies of the work of their own artists. Of course, not all }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 piracy}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  originates from the big record companies. There are many entrepreneurs, as well as politicians, who make big profits out of something that is considered illegal by the law.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid576  }{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
\par }\pard \qj \li360\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid576 {\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 At the same time, we need to realise that there cannot be }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
piracy}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
 in societies where the individual appropriation in the form of copyright does not exist. Why not? Everybody in the community has the self-evident right to use and adapt all works from }{\insrsid2444557 the }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
past and present creatively. If individual ownership has no currency, then there cannot be theft either. Therefore, in most non-Western cultures }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 piracy}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 
\rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  was an unknown phenomenon, at least until recently. Many cultures have been characterised by their ongoing processes of creative adaptation; otherwise those cultures would not exist.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\f1\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 2.\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx0\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls43\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 {
\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 The economics of copyright }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 piracy}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
, as well as who actually gets hurt and loses out, are often portrayed in misleading ways. In the first place, while the ideology of copyright suggests that it is a system designed to protect individual authors }{\insrsid6572160\charrsid576 (the}{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  so-}{\insrsid6572160\charrsid576 called individual}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  struggling }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 romantic }{\insrsid6572160\charrsid576 author}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid6572160\charrsid576 )}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  most copyrighted cultural commodities are, in fact, owned under law by the employers of the people who create these works. }{\insrsid1994101\charrsid576 
(Or, alternatively, }{\insrsid14901164\charrsid576 the copyright is acquired by corporations through contracts that are often one-sided }{\insrsid1865234\charrsid576 as a result of unequal bargaining power\'85
as many musicians have learned to their sorrow.) }{\insrsid14821155\charrsid576 As }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 one recent article concludes, }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \'93}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
[I]t is abundantly clear that in the current era of industrial production of cultural commodities, copyrighted works are more often than not created by unromantic authors sitting in their cubicles creating for a large corporation like Microsoft.}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s28\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tx2400\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\lang1040\langfe2057\langnp1040\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Lawrence Liang, Atrayee Mazmdar and Mayur Suresh, \lquote Copy
right/Copyleft: Myths About Copyright\rquote , Infochangeindia.org, 1 February, 2005. }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\fs20\lang1040\langfe2057\langnp1040\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 HYPERLINK http://www.countercurrents.org/hr-suresh010205.htm }{
\fs20\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b6600000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0063006f0075006e00740065007200630075007200720065006e00740073002e006f00720067002f00680072002d007300750072006500730068003000
310030003200300035002e00680074006d0000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.countercurrents.org/hr-suresh010205.htm}}}{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  }{
\insrsid15084296\charrsid576 In other}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  words, most financial losses due to piracy do }{\i\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 not}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  r
esult in losses by individual authors, but by corporations such as Microsoft. This same article goes on to explain how decisions are made about what books or CDs are }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 pirated}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  and asks how sympathetic we should be towards those who may suffer not losses, but less profits than they expect to receive. }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \'93}{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 Clearly pirates respond only to a market demand, and not every book is pirated. There is a particular popularity or price limit that has to be achieved before it enters into the piracy circuit. Presumably, if a
 book has achieved a certain status that leads to it being pirated, its author is no longer poor and struggling. Thus, the sight of Madonna appearing in TV ads condemning piracy because it deprives her of her livelihood is not terribly convincing as image
s of her many villas and islands flash in}{\insrsid2444557 to}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  one}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 s mind.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid. }}}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  As for Microsoft and its losses due to }{\insrsid15084296\charrsid576 unauthorised}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  copying of computer software, Bill Gates is }{\insrsid2444557 the }{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 richest person on the globe.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid576  }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 3.\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx0\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls43\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 {
\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 We should also be suspicious of the accuracy of statistical claims as to the total losses resulting from }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 piracy.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  To continue with the example of software, powerful }{\insrsid14821155\charrsid576 global organisations }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 such as the Business Software Alliance, which represents a number of 
large multinational software firms, claim they have }{\insrsid7603467\charrsid576 accurate and }{\insrsid6572160\charrsid576 detailed}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  profiles }{\insrsid15084296\charrsid576 on country-by-country rates}{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  of software piracy\'85and hence of the losses they have suffered.}{\cs18\super\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  The website of the BSA is }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
HYPERLINK http://www.bsa.org/ }{\fs20\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  But such calculations start from the assumption that a consumer purchasing an illegal copy of software would necessarily purchase a legal version of the same software if }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{
\insrsid15084296\charrsid576 pirated}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  software was not available as an alternative. Using the case of India, critics have pointed out the fallacy of such an assumption.}{
\insrsid7603467\charrsid576  }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 They ask: }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \'93}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
while we know that most computers in India have an illegal copy of Microsoft XP and Microsoft Office, can we assume that every user would be }{\insrsid16711716\charrsid576 willing to pay an additional Rs}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 23,000 for these two }
{\insrsid16711716\charrsid576 programmes}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
 alone, especially in the light of a free alternative in the form of Linux? Is it not likely that most users would not go in for the Microsoft software were it not for the fact that pirated software is available for free?}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 
\'94}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  }{\cs18\super\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Liang et al., ibid. }}}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid3280357\charrsid576 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 4.\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx0\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls43\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 {
\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 {\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft4752\shptop-916\shpright8232\shpbottom1855\shpfhdr0\shpbxcolumn\shpbxignore\shpbypara\shpbyignore\shpwr4\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz7\shplid1033
{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 202}}{\sp{\sn fFlipH}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFlipV}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lTxid}{\sv 524288}}{\sp{\sn hspNext}{\sv 1033}}{\sp{\sn fRecolorFillAsPicture}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fUseShapeAnchor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn shadowOpacity}{\sv 32768}}
{\sp{\sn shadowOffsetX}{\sv 76200}}{\sp{\sn shadowOffsetY}{\sv -76200}}{\sp{\sn fShadow}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn f3D}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn pWrapPolygonVertices}{\sv 8;8;(559,-934);(-93,-117);(-93,21483);(21693,21483);(21972,21483);(22345,20432)
;(22345,-934);(559,-934)}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\shptxt \pard\plain \qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15621248 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs27\f66\fs24\cf1\insrsid8483307 \lquote }{\cs27\f66\fs24\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid16711716 (o)ne might say that one nation\rquote s \lquote piracy\rquote  is another man\rquote s [sic] 
\lquote technology transfer}{\cs27\f66\fs24\cf1\insrsid8483307 \rquote .\rquote }{\cs27\f66\fs24\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid16711716  
\par 
\par }{\cs27\i\f66\fs24\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid16711716 Peter Jaszi, A Garland of Reflections on Three International Copyright Topics, 8 Cardozo Arts & Entertainment Law Journal{\*\bkmkstart SDU_37}{\*\bkmkend SDU_37} 47, 63 (1989).}{
\i\f66\fs24\insrsid8483307\charrsid16711716 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt7\dptxbx\dptxlrtb{\dptxbxtext\pard\plain \qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid15621248 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs27\f66\fs24\cf1\insrsid8483307 \lquote }{\cs27\f66\fs24\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid16711716 (o)ne might say that one nation\rquote s \lquote piracy\rquote  is another man\rquote s [sic] \lquote technology transfer}{\cs27\f66\fs24\cf1\insrsid8483307 
\rquote .\rquote }{\cs27\f66\fs24\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid16711716  
\par 
\par }{\cs27\i\f66\fs24\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid16711716 Peter Jaszi, A Garland of Reflections on Three International Copyright Topics, 8 Cardozo Arts & Entertainment Law Journal{\*\bkmkstart SDU_37}{\*\bkmkend SDU_37} 47, 63 (1989).}{
\i\f66\fs24\insrsid8483307\charrsid16711716 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}\dpx4752\dpy-916\dpxsize3480\dpysize2771\dpfillfgcr255\dpfillfgcg255\dpfillfgcb255\dpfillbgcr255\dpfillbgcg255\dpfillbgcb255\dpfillpat1\dplinew15\dplinecor0\dplinecog0\dplinecob0}}}}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 Without }{\insrsid15084296\charrsid576 
glamorising}{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
piracy or arguing that it represents a conscious resistance to copyright laws and the values which they represent, we do need to recognise that so-called }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 pirates}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 , including commercial pirates, play a positive role in many parts of th
e South. They enable the distribution of low-cost technology, information and entertainment to millions of people who could not otherwise access or afford it. Moreover, many of these so-called }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{
\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 pirates}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576  participate in this informal information economy as a means of }{\insrsid10706934\charrsid576 earning a }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 livelihood. }{
\insrsid10706934\charrsid576 And look at the context: w}{\insrsid15084296\charrsid576 
hen many counties of the South have been subjected to centuries of economic exploitation by colonial masters, when millions of slaves were transported in slave galleys from Africa to pick sugar cane
 and tobacco (and with many dying en route), and with the rich biological resources of the South}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid576  }{\insrsid15084296\charrsid576 subjected today to a growing plunder known as }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{
\insrsid15084296\charrsid576 biopiracy}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid15084296\charrsid576 , we could first start }{\i\insrsid15084296\charrsid576 not}{\insrsid15084296\charrsid576  by condemning copyright }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 
\lquote }{\insrsid15084296\charrsid576 piracy}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid15084296\charrsid576 , but by asking why, in the so-called }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \lquote }{\insrsid15084296\charrsid576 information age}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid15084296\charrsid576 , Microsoft}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid15084296\charrsid576 s Window}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid15084296\charrsid576 
s XP is being offered for sale in Beijing}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\insrsid15084296\charrsid576 s Hailong Market at a cost of US$ 245.00 (with logo and shrink-wrap)\'85
.and its copy can be purchased in an unmarked CD in the same market for a mere US$ 5.50?}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid576  }{\insrsid9387857\charrsid576 Could it be that the officially packaged version is being sold at a price that bears no relationship }{
\insrsid15861282\charrsid576 whatsoever}{\insrsid9387857\charrsid576  to the cost of producing it? }{\insrsid6693350\charrsid576 And if the answer is yes, might this be one reason }{\insrsid3874346 why}{\insrsid6693350\charrsid576 
 Bill Gates is the richest }{\insrsid7237206\charrsid576 person on the globe? }{\insrsid1320029\charrsid576 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid576 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\qj \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid11107820\charrsid16711716 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734281}3.7 }{
\b0\fs28\insrsid15732060 The }{\b0\fs28\insrsid11107820\charrsid16711716 privatisation of common culture proceeds in the S}{\b0\fs28\insrsid15732060 outh}{\b0\fs28\insrsid213985 , }{\b0\fs28\insrsid11107820\charrsid16711716 at a quickening pace.}{
\b0\fs28\insrsid16018739\charrsid16711716 {\*\bkmkend _Toc135734281} }{\b0\fs28\insrsid11107820\charrsid16711716 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\f1\fs28\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 It is happening more and more in recent years in non-Western societies that local artists privately appropriate an artistic idea or a melody or a cultural development origin
ating from a collective tradition and then start to use it for their own individual commercial interests. They pretend}{\insrsid7603589  \endash  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 to others and perhaps even to themselves- that they are using }{
\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 my own idea}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  or }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 my}{\insrsid15605925\charrsid2429221  own }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 song.}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  This pretence starts the process of excluding others from the use of these cultural resources and, in this }{\insrsid6767792\charrsid2429221 
transformation}{\insrsid15861282\charrsid2429221 , the}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  concept of copyright gets introduced rather quickly. Yet, the existence of this phenomenon should not be a reason for amazement.
 The commonly-held supposition that copyright can ---and does}{\insrsid3623856  \endash  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
support artists to make a decent living does not stop at the borders of the Western world. One may wonder what kind of tensions this transformation causes in local communities. In any case, on
ce the private appropriation of cultural resources has started and is accompanied by the introduction of the notion of copyright, societies }{\insrsid7619127\charrsid2429221 and their cultural lives }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
are never the same as before.
\par 
\par What has been described here in a nutshell covers the huge social transformations that have }{\insrsid3874346 been }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
taking place all over the world for the past few decades but, in the last years, have been going at a faster and faster pace. Although few seem to appreciate the impact, radical changes of cultures are at stake. The pro
cesses may appear to be automatic and self-evident happenings and hence not demand specific attention and analysis. We do know that the owners of copyright and those merchandising these cultural }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 products}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid6767792\charrsid2429221 become the}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  ultimate winner}{\insrsid3874346 s}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
. It is }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 not}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  certain, ho
wever, that everybody is content with those transformations. What tensions does this bring about in different parts of the non-Western world? Are there counter movements that }{\insrsid6767792\charrsid2429221 argue that}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
 the public cultural domain should not be hollowed out and swallowed up
? What are their arguments? Where do they think a new balance should be found between the commons in the cultural field and the right of artists to make a living from their work? Hence, there is an almost wide-open research agenda.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par Let}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 s consider a typical situation. A local record company produces cassettes or CD}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 s }{\insrsid7619127\charrsid2429221 
of the work of }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 local artists. }{\insrsid7619127\charrsid2429221 (}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 In a larger country, this record company may also be active in the same region.}{\insrsid7619127\charrsid2429221 )}{
\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 The distribution of this music }{\insrsid4463663\charrsid2429221 and accompanying }{\insrsid15861282\charrsid2429221 videos is}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  local }{\insrsid4463663\charrsid2429221 
(}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 or regional}{\insrsid4463663\charrsid2429221 )}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  as well. Let}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
s assume as well that the system of copyright does not yet exist in th}{\insrsid4463663\charrsid2429221 is locale}{\insrsid16610695  }{\insrsid4463663\charrsid2429221 / region }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
or it is very patchy. What are the kind of usual agreements between artists and producers that can be found in different societies? Are there any agreements
 at all? Does the production of a cassette deliver an income to artists or does it mainly generate publicity that may lead to live performances? What are the optimal conditions that make artists, as well as producers and distributors, content? And what ha
ppens when an artist feels that he or she has been treated improperly? Would a well regulated system of copyrights give him or her a stronger position? When does the claim arise that another artist must refrain from using, for instance, a certain melody?}
{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid15861282\charrsid2429221 There }{\insrsid8128564\charrsid2429221 are many questions }{\insrsid15861282\charrsid2429221 then }{\insrsid8128564\charrsid2429221 to }{\insrsid15861282\charrsid2429221 answer.}{\insrsid16018739  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid5705803\charrsid5465620 
Reasons for doubting copyright}{\f1\fs24\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\f1\fs24\insrsid5705803\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid5705803\charrsid5465620 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 From a Western perspective, one }{\insrsid8128564\charrsid5465620 might be }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 inclined to think that }{\insrsid3616955\charrsid5465620 the introduction of }{
\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620 intellectual}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  property rights}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  \endash  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 and copyright in particular}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  \endash  }{
\insrsid6767792\charrsid5465620 would}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  be of real assistance to artists. There are, however, several reasons for doubt. }{\insrsid3616955\charrsid5465620 First, t}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
he state where the artist resides must }{\insrsid6767792\charrsid5465620 be strong}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  enough to provide legitimacy to collecting societies and }{\insrsid3616955\charrsid5465620 to }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
support their practical operations with an effective system of sanctions. This is not the case everywhere}{\insrsid3616955\charrsid5465620  and certainly not in Lebanon as was explained earlier in Section Three. }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
(Nor is it the case that the financial }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 irregularities}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  and outright corruption }{
\insrsid11954535\charrsid5465620 which per}{\insrsid2843233\charrsid5465620 meate }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 some of these collecting societies are being properly investigated by governments in the South.) }{\insrsid9768953\charrsid5465620 
Second, }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 there is an idea prevalent in the Western world that }{\insrsid13705012\charrsid5465620 who is the }{\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620 creator (}{\insrsid13705012\charrsid5465620 or who is the performer}{
\insrsid13649276\charrsid5465620 ) }{\insrsid13705012\charrsid5465620 of a musical composition}{\insrsid16711716\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid13649276\charrsid5465620 is something that can be }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
easily indicated and identified}{\insrsid1581014\charrsid5465620 ; such identification }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
is a key building block for the present copyright system. In most cultures in the South, however, such a distinction does not exist at all. Third, most artists in the Western world do not profit from the existence of a copyright system; only a ti
ny minority get a substantial income from this rights system. (For example, a survey conducted in 2000 into the amount of income in royalties received by the 30,000 members of the UK Performing Rights Society is revealing: 200 members received more than G
B \'a3100,000, 700 members received more than GB\'a325,000, 1,500 received more than GB\'a310,000, 2,300 received more than GB\'a35,000 and a total of 16,000 members}{\insrsid13189406\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 received under \'a3
100}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s28\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  M. Kretschmer , \lquote Artists\rquote  Earnings and Copyright: A review of British and German music industry data in the context of digital technologies
\rquote , First Monday, Vol. 10, No, 1, January 2005. }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.cippm.org.uk/html/recent_publications.htm" \\l "#" }}{\fldrslt {\cs19\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue10_1}}}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 ; for comparison purposes, the average annual income of all British residents in 2000 was about GB\'a315,000.) Why would this be different in parts of the world where this system }
{\insrsid16610695 was }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 recently introduced? Fourth, the present practice of copyrights }{\insrsid937379\charrsid5465620 aggressively }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
privatises complete fields of creativity and knowledge development. This is }{\insrsid937379\charrsid5465620 highly }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 disadvantageous for artists}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  future processes of creating and performing music. 
\par 
\par Considering all }{\insrsid10370917\charrsid5465620 of }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 th}{\insrsid10370917\charrsid5465620 ese}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  facts, one may wonder whether artists would not
 be better off if they negotiated directly with producers and distributors and, as well, joined unions to make general agreements for the entire industry. Are there examples of best practices that indicate how a satisfying balance can be reached between t
he needs of artists and the public interest, while avoiding the introduction of the copyright system that, apparently, has more disadvantages than advantages?
\par 
\par More and more artists from non-Western countries are getting contracts with one of the big five globally-dominant record companies or with their sub-labels. If the work they record is distributed only }{\insrsid11677579 i}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 n their own local or regional market, more or less the same questions will be on the table as those concerning the relation between local artists and locally operating record companies.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid10370917\charrsid5465620 By-passing the }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid10370917\charrsid5465620 star}{\f1\fs24\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid10370917\charrsid5465620  system 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid10370917\charrsid5465620 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 The contract that changes an artist from a non-Western country into a }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 star}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  with a global distribution system will not differ much from the contract his or her counterpart in the Western world has signed; this system incorporates all of the problems and objections that are inherent in the }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 star}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  system.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid937379\charrsid5465620 (}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 It must be noted, however, that the negotiating power of an artist from Africa, Asia, Latin America or from one of the Arab countries is far weaker than it is for an artist from a Western country.}{
\insrsid937379\charrsid5465620 )}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 What is similar, as well, is that the prospective }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 star}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  must obey all the procedures that govern anyone under contract with a multi-national record company: the music w
ill be polished endlessly; the only purpose of concerts and tours is to promote a new CD; and all that is spontaneous should disappear behind the horizon. However, this process may affect the artistic work of a non-Western artist even more than it may aff
ect a}{\insrsid7999813\charrsid5465620  European or North American }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 star. }{\insrsid7999813\charrsid5465620 For these latter stars, }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
his or her rhythm and tonality will stay more or less the same as it was in the local pub where they sang or played originally. It will be polished a little bit more; one may like this, or one m
ay not. But compare this with the sound of the music produced by a non-Western musician}{\insrsid9114415\charrsid5465620 . }{\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620 To sell and be popular, his or her music must encapsulate the proper blend of the }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620 exotic}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620  with a sound that can be tuned in by the }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{
\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620 Western}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620  ear}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  \endash  }{\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620 or what a producer thinks the }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620 Western}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620  ear will like. }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
So the change in performance and presentation may indeed be quite fundamental and, in the end, the musician may become quite cut-off and even alienated from }{\insrsid9114415\charrsid5465620 his or her }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
own cultural roots. 
\par 
\par Despite this transformation, very little research has been done as to what happens to the music of non-Western artists once they come under }{\insrsid11677579 the }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
control of cultural conglomerates and their producers. This is not a nostalgic question. If musicologists can investigate what kinds of influe
nces have penetrated the work of, for instance, Bach, why are they absent when it concerns the major transformation processes that are taking place at the moment in music from the Arab world, Africa, Latin America or Asia as it is being adapted to}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  \endash  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 and transformed for}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  \endash  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
a global market? It should not be difficult to investigate those kinds of interventions. For instance, there are artists from the non-Western parts of the world that have two kinds of repertoire: }{\insrsid2836625\charrsid5465620 one which they }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 perform at home, and }{\insrsid2836625\charrsid5465620 one which }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
they present as a star on the world market. The comparison can be made quite easily. The research could be focused as well on what is current in the country or region of the artist him or herself, and how his or her work sounds and looks in the global co
ntext. }{\insrsid12668464\charrsid5465620 
\par 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 It is strange and regrettable that such forms of analysis are not what keep (ethno)-musicologists busy today. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid11107820\charrsid16711716 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734282}
3.8 Western cultural conglomerates and the global marketing of culture from the global South{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734282} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid3368580\charrsid2429221 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 In the ongoing process of globalisation}{\insrsid12668464\charrsid2429221 , }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 we see that Western cultural conglomerates}{\insrsid14303153\charrsid2429221 
\par (}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 or their sub-labels}{\insrsid14303153\charrsid2429221 ) }{\insrsid12668464\charrsid2429221 have }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 start}{\insrsid12668464\charrsid2429221 ed to use }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
artistic material from non-Western cultures on a }{\insrsid3108960\charrsid2429221 much greater scale than even a few years ago. }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 One could }{\insrsid14303153\charrsid2429221 suggest }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
that this is }{\insrsid14303153\charrsid2429221 a}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  creative adaptation that should be stimulated}{\insrsid14303153\charrsid2429221  and encouraged. }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
Everybody should have the right to make even minor creative changes }{\insrsid16586042\charrsid2429221 to a }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
work as was tolerated and promoted in all cultures everywhere in the world. Does this mean that those forms of industrial creative adaptations do not have problematic aspects? The answer is no. 
\par 
\par The main problem is that Western cultural conglomerates }{\insrsid9003966\charrsid2429221 are }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 exploit}{\insrsid9003966\charrsid2429221 ing cultural productions being }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
derived from non-Western cultures while}{\insrsid9003966\charrsid2429221 , at the same time, }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 controlling cultural markets all over the world. They determine the character, }{\insrsid7809993\charrsid2429221 the }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 sphere}{\insrsid16586042\charrsid2429221 , }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 and }{\insrsid7809993\charrsid2429221 the }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 ambiances in which the work will be presented.}{\insrsid16018739  }
{\insrsid9003966\charrsid2429221 As}{\insrsid7809993\charrsid2429221  a result, there }{\insrsid618035\charrsid2429221 is seldom }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
the normal kind of creative adaptation that takes place in an ongoing cycle of additions, changes, and cultural dynamics within a community. }{\insrsid618035\charrsid2429221 Here is }{\insrsid7809993\charrsid2429221 
how the current process can be characterised: }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 after }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 we}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 , }{\insrsid9003966\charrsid2429221 the }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
giant cultural industries, g}{\insrsid9003966\charrsid2429221 et }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 a firm}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 grip on the work by owning its copyright}{\insrsid7229453\charrsid2429221 , }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 no creative adaptation will take place any}{\insrsid7229453\charrsid2429221  longer}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 , unless, }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 we}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 , cultural
 conglomerates, decide that it might or will happen, and moreover only under }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 our}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
 conditions. Actually, this means that the cultural conglomerate alone decides what the work will be, now and in the future. This is completely opposite to the practice in all 
cultures that creative adaptations were the object of quarrels and enjoyment within a community }{\insrsid7229453\charrsid2429221 and }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 where nobody could say: this work and all its possible adaptations belong}{
\insrsid7229453\charrsid2429221 s to me }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 forever}{\insrsid7229453\charrsid2429221 . }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Another problem is that these cultural industries are }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 not}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 , by definition}{\insrsid6767792\charrsid2429221 , }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 respectful to the work they adapt.
\par 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 By using the exclusionary powers granted by copyright, creative adaptation ends with the cultural conglomerate}{\insrsid2904046\charrsid2429221 s}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid2904046\charrsid2429221 which have }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 appropriated artistic material from non-Western countries. Copyright is the legal fence }{\insrsid2904046\charrsid2429221 erected in }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 the final phase of the creative adaptation. Moreover, the price of the works cultural industries have adapted and copyrighted is astronomic}{\insrsid16219685\charrsid2429221 al }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
compared to what it costs }{\insrsid16219685\charrsid2429221 them to take and }{\insrsid15861282\charrsid2429221 distribute non}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 -Western local cultures. Th}{\insrsid2644577\charrsid2429221 e }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 discrepancy }{\insrsid2644577\charrsid2429221 between what they pay non-Western artists and what they receive in profits for their work is to}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 o great to be justifiable. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid11107820\charrsid16711716 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734283}
3.9 The role of the World Intellectual Property Organisation in spreading the copyright system and its narratives to countries of the South{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734283} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\f1\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 Backgrounder on }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620 WIPO}{\cs18\f1\fs24\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid16711716 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Parts of this text draw on earlier published sources, including Sisule F. Musungu and Graham Dutfield, 
\lquote  Multi-lateral agreements and a TRIPS-plus world: The World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO)\rquote 
 , Quaker United Nations Office, Geneva, 2003; this pamphlet contains a detailed exposition on the functioning and role of WIP0 and is available at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
HYPERLINK http://www.iprsonline.org/ictsd/docs/WIPO_Musungu_Dutfield.pdf }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b7e00000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0069007000720073006f006e006c0069006e0065002e006f00720067002f00690063007400730064002f0064006f00630073002f005700490050004f00
5f004d007500730075006e00670075005f004400750074006600690065006c0064002e007000640066000000000000000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.iprsonline.org/ictsd/docs/WIPO_Musungu_Dutfield.pdf}}}{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 .; Peter Drahos with John Braithwaite, Information Feudalism- Who Owns the Knowledge Economy? (London: Earthscan, 2002.) (For a digital summary of this important book, see: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.thecornerhouse.org.uk/item.shtml?x=85821#fn038ref" }{\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b020000001f0000003d00000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0074006800650063006f0072006e006500720068006f007500730065002e006f00720067002e0075006b002f006900740065006d002e007300680074006d006c003f0078003d00380035003800
32003100230066006e003000330038007200650066000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b6800000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0074006800650063006f0072006e006500720068006f007500730065002e006f00720067002e0075006b002f006900740065006d002e007300680074006d
006c003f0078003d003800350038003200310000000900000066006e003000330038007200650066000000000000000000086c00630000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.thecornerhouse.org.uk/item.shtml?x=85821#fn038ref}}}{
\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 .; }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Alan Story, \lquote Study on Intellectual Property Rights, the Internet and Copyright\rquote 
, Study Paper 5, Commission on Intellectual Property Rights, London, 2002, which is available at: 
\par http://www.iprcommission.org/papers/pdfs/study_papers/sp5_story_study.pdf }}}{\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid16711716  }{\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid16711716 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tx500\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\f1\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \tab 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 The World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) is a United Nations organisation b
ased in Geneva. Established in 1970, it subsequently became the lead/specialised UN agency dealing with all intellectual property issues in 1974. WIPO traces its organisational roots to the }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Bureaux Internationaux r}{
\i\insrsid10232137 \'e9}{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 unis pour }{\i\insrsid10232137 la}{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  protection de la propriet}{\i\insrsid10232137 \'e9}{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  intellectuelle}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  (BIRPI) which administered the two leading international IP agreements, the Paris and Berne Conventions, as well as other }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 special}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  IP agreements. }{\insrsid15086679\charrsid2429221 Most countries join WIPO through their membership in the Paris and Berne Unions. }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 As of }{\insrsid15086679\charrsid2429221 March 2006}{
\insrsid15861282\charrsid2429221 , WIPO}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  had 1}{\insrsid15086679\charrsid2429221 83 }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 members. 
\par 
\par As for its finances, the proposed WIPO budget for 2006/07, as recommended for approval at the WIPO General Assembly in September 200}{\insrsid15086679\charrsid2429221 5}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 , was 531 million Swiss Francs (US}{
\insrsid10232137 $}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 416.71 million). Significantly, one of the few areas of recent budget increases has been the expansion of WIPO}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
s programmes in countries of the South. Unlike other UN organisations, which receive most of their funding from the contribution of member countries, a very high percentage of WIPO}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
s budget is derived from the services it provides and,}{\insrsid10232137  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 in }{\insrsid15086679\charrsid2429221 particular, }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
from the filing and ongoing fees paid by patent holders who seek protection under the Patent Co-operation Treaty. In fact, a total of 80 per cent of WIPO}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
s total budget is derived from PCT fees. As the total number of international applications for patents filed under the PCT has }{\insrsid15207568\charrsid2429221 increased }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
from less than 10,000 in 1985 to more than 100,000 in 2001, WIPO}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 s revenues have also increased significantly in recent decades, especially since the enactment of the TRIPS Ag
reement in 1994. WIPO is the wealthiest UN organisation and appears likely to remain in that favoured position for the foreseeable future.}{\insrsid16018739  }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par 
\par WIPO has two main objectives as set down in Article 3 of the WIPO Convention:
\par 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx0\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls44\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 {
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 to promote the protection of intellectual property throughout the world through the cooperation among States, and, where appropriate, in collaboration with any other international organisations; and
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}to ensure administrative cooperation among the Unions.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
\par Despite its seemingly pre-eminent role in international intellectual property affairs and its stance as a strong proponent of what we might call }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 intellectual property fundamentalism}{
\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 , WIPO has, at least since the early 1980}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 s, been forced into a somewhat defensive stance, chiefly because it was considered }{
\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 as not fundamentalist enough}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
 by US and European IP multinational rightsholders. For example, in 1982, just as these corporations were launching their campaign for more expansive international}{\insrsid11038345\charrsid2429221  property }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
protection and stronger protection mechanisms, the president of the US drug giant Pfizer wrote an op}{\insrsid7033702 inion}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  piece in }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 The New York Times}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  entitled }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 Stealing from the Mind}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11038345\charrsid2429221 . }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
In addition to charging that certain governments (especially in the South) were stealing US knowledge and inventions, the Pfizer article also criticised WIPO for }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
trying to grab high technology inventions for underdeveloped countries}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  and contemplating treaty revisions that would }{\insrsid10166911 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
confer international legitimacy on the abrogation of patents.}{\insrsid10166911 \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
Peter Drahos with John Braithwaite, http://www.thecornerhouse.org.uk/item.shtml?x=85821#fn038ref}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  Why this }{\insrsid1715730\charrsid2429221 initial }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
broadside? Throughout the 1980s, the most powerful developed countries and their multinational corporations in the IP business had begun to view WIPO as a mere }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 talking shop}{\insrsid10166911 
\rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  and, in particular, as ineffective in the global enforcement of their IP rights. But far stronger attacks, which ultimately undermined WIPO}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
s central role, were still to come.
\par 
\par Just as the US had sidelined UNESCO from any serious role in copyright policy in the early 1980}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 s}{\insrsid7603589  \endash  }{\insrsid8090040\charrsid2429221 a}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 n impotence that remains today}{\insrsid7603589  \endash  }{\insrsid8090040\charrsid2429221 w}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 hat Peter Drahos calls }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 the Quad}
{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  (the US, the European Community and Japan, with a minor role played by Canada) decided that the main forum for intellectual prop
erty policy issues should become the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) rather than WIPO.}{\cs18\cf1\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 See Drahos and Braithwaite, Information Feudalism, Chapter 7 \lquote Agendas and Agenda- Setters: The Multilateral Game.\rquote  }}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  Drahos calls this manoeuvre }{\insrsid10166911 \lquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 forum shifting}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 . By the late 1980}{\insrsid10166911 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
s when negotiations for a new intellectual property treaty linked to trade}{\insrsid8090040\charrsid2429221  }{\insrsid15861282\charrsid2429221 (later}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  to become known at the TRIPS Agreement}{
\insrsid8090040\charrsid2429221 ) }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 took shape behind closed doors, WIPO
 started to take an increasingly diminished role in global IP policy. In fact, and over the objections of countries such as Brazil and India, it was the GATT}{\insrsid1715730\charrsid2429221  (}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221 
later to become the World Trade Organisation}{\insrsid1715730\charrsid2429221 )}{\insrsid15629513\charrsid2429221 ,}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid2429221  that was the forum of choice for the drafting and passage of the TRIPS Agreement.}{\insrsid11107820 

\par }{\insrsid16711716\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc109392490}WIPO}{\f1\fs24\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 s role in spreading the copyright message to countries in the South{\*\bkmkend _Toc109392490}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par Since the mid-1990s, WIPO has re-grouped and works very actively in promoting the spread and cementing of intellectual property values and laws in the South. Indeed, the South has been a particular }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 target area}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  in the ten years and }{\insrsid7033702 this }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
has been especially true since the signing of the TRIPS Agreement in 1994. Here, for example, is an excerpt from a proposal submitted in June 2005 by the Kingdom of Bahrain on }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
The importance of intellectual property in social and economic development and national development programs.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 The document, dated 14 June 2005, was prepared for the Inter-sessional Intergovernmental meeting on a development agenda for WIPO, second session, Geneva, June 20 to 22, 2005. Available at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
HYPERLINK http://www.wipo.int/edocs/mdocs/mdocs/en/iim_2/iim_2_2.doc }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b7600000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e007700690070006f002e0069006e0074002f00650064006f00630073002f006d0064006f00630073002f006d0064006f00630073002f0065006e002f00
690069006d005f0032002f00690069006d005f0032005f0032002e0064006f0063000000000000000000000000040000}}}{\fldrslt {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.wipo.int/edocs/mdocs/mdocs/en/iim_2/iim_2_2.doc}}}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 In a section entitled }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 The Role of WIPO in Developing National Programs for Bahrain}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
, the proposal states:
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\fs20\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid576 WIPO works with developing
 countries, including Bahrain, in setting up national programs for social and economic development. Ongoing cooperation and coordination with the Arab Bureau in WIPO has produced tangible results, such as: modernizing national legislation on intellectual 
p
roperty; facilitating accession to WIPO-administered treaties, including the WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT) and the WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT); supporting national awareness campaigns through national and regional seminars and meetings, r
a
ising awareness of the significance of intellectual property in an era of advanced technology and accelerated production, and their impact on economic growth and development; providing support for curricula development in national educational institutes a
nd universities; and participating in the preparation of capacity-building programs for the judiciary and legislative authorities, to keep abreast of worldwide developments in the intellectual property field.
\par }\pard\plain \qj \fi-960\li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid576 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 Similar WIPO activities are carried out in many other countries across the South. 
\par 
\par WIPO and its supporters use a range of themes in telling their story. The }{\insrsid13266147\charrsid5465620 main }{\insrsid928723\charrsid5465620 message }{\insrsid13266147\charrsid5465620 in }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 WIPO}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 s evangelism is a fairly straightforward one: intellectual property protection is a necessary tool for development.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  See for example, K. Idris, Intellectual Property: A Power Tool for Economic Growth (Geneva: World Intellectual Property Organisation, 2003).}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 More specifically, intellectual property is viewed as the }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 indispensable ingredient}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  in the complex process of knowledge a
nd wealth creation which, it is suggested, earlier led to the prosperity of developed countries. This is contrary to the evidence and }{\insrsid928723\charrsid5465620 to }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 history.}{
\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  See for example, Ha-Joon Chang, Kicking away the Ladder: Development Strategy in Historical Perspective (London: Anthem Press, 2002); \lquote 
Intellectual Property Rights and Economic Development \endash  Historical Lessons and Emerging Issues\rquote , Journal of Human Development, July 2001.}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  The protect-in-order-to-create clich\'e9
 is fervently advocated as a universal and global imperative. For example, WIPO insists that }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
[intellectual property] protection is an indispensable incentive to creative and inventive work.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'94}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  See \lquote 
Striking a Balance: The Patent System and Access to Drugs and Health Care\rquote , WIPO Publication No. 491(E), Geneva.}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  It denigrates as }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
myth}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 any contrary assertions that seek to draw upon the peculiarity of social and economic circumstances of developing countries in the formulation of intellectual property laws.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid.}}}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid15623373\charrsid5465620 
\par 
\par }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 WIPO}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 s approach strikes a cord with what is known in the United States as the }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 bargain theory.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 Under this rhetoric of reward as an incentive for creativity and inventiveness (the roots of which can be traced to the patent and copyright clause in Article 1 of the U.S. Federal Constitution), it is assumed that people can and will }{
\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 only }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 come up with new inventions if there is a }{\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620 sufficiently}{\insrsid15623373\charrsid5465620  large financial }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
reward acting as an incentive for doing so. It is further argued that reducing incentives, such as shortening of the duration of patents or copyright, will produce an unfavourable atmosphere for invention and progress.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }
{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 WIPO advocacy is also highly commercial in its orientation. Knowledge and culture are referred to as }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 intellectual capital}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  to justify }{\insrsid13330015\charrsid5465620 its }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 treatment and conceptualisation }{\insrsid13330015\charrsid5465620 of them }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 as mere commodities in the global marketplace.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  The concepts of \lquote commodification\rquote  and \lquote reward\rquote  were explained ear
lier in Section 3. }}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par 
\par }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 {\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft3312\shptop-38\shpright8232\shpbottom3059\shpfhdr0\shpbxcolumn\shpbxignore\shpbypara\shpbyignore\shpwr4\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz8\shplid1034
{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 202}}{\sp{\sn fFlipH}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFlipV}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lTxid}{\sv 589824}}{\sp{\sn fRecolorFillAsPicture}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fUseShapeAnchor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn shadowOpacity}{\sv 32768}}
{\sp{\sn shadowOffsetX}{\sv 76200}}{\sp{\sn shadowOffsetY}{\sv 76200}}{\sp{\sn fShadow}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn f3D}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn pWrapPolygonVertices}{\sv 8;8;(-66,-105);(-66,21600);(395,21705);(395,22334);(22127,22334);(22127,839)
;(21666,-105);(-66,-105)}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\shptxt \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16711716 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid16711716 \'93As an intergovernmental organization\'85
WIPO embraced a culture of creating and expanding monopoly privileges, often without regard to consequences. The continuous expansion of these privileges and their enforcement mechanisms has led t
o grave social and economic costs, and has hampered and threatened other important systems of creativity and innovation.\'94
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16711716 {\i\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16711716 {\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid16711716 Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization, October 2004}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid16711716 . (}
{\field\flddirty{\*\fldinst {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid16711716 HYPERLINK http://www.cptech.org/ip/wipo/genevadeclaration.html }{\f66\insrsid1708660\charrsid16711716 {\*\datafield 
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\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt8\dptxbx\dptxlrtb{\dptxbxtext\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16711716 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\f66\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid16711716 \'93As an intergovernmental organization\'85
WIPO embraced a culture of creating and expanding monopoly privileges, often without regard to consequences. The continuous expansion of these privileges and their enforcement mechanisms has led t
o grave social and economic costs, and has hampered and threatened other important systems of creativity and innovation.\'94
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16711716 {\i\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid2429221 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid16711716 {\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid16711716 Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization, October 2004}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid16711716 . (}
{\field\flddirty{\*\fldinst {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid16711716 HYPERLINK http://www.cptech.org/ip/wipo/genevadeclaration.html }{\f66\insrsid1708660\charrsid16711716 {\*\datafield 
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\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}\dpx3312\dpy-38\dpxsize4920\dpysize3097\dpfillfgcr255\dpfillfgcg255\dpfillfgcb255\dpfillbgcr255\dpfillbgcg255\dpfillbgcb255\dpfillpat1\dplinew15\dplinecor0\dplinecog0\dplinecob0}}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
There are various other common WIPO themes. One is the link between both the transplanting and embracing of intellectual property values }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 and}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  nation-building }{
\insrsid10958555\charrsid5465620 (}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 and modernisation.}{\insrsid10958555\charrsid5465620 )}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  For example, the document from Bahrain cited above begins with the statement: }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 The importance of intellectual property is reflected in everything around us and challenges old established ideas and concepts.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'94}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  This modernisation theme continues: }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
creativity breaks the shackles of classical science and shows that experience and observation are the sound basis for modern scientific research}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'94}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 and the document attempts to link the embrace of copyright and its accompanying values with the global spread of cultures, such as that of the ancient Arab cultures. The enactment of copyright laws, the Bahrain proposal states, is }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 allowing for traditional knowledge and heritage to make significant contributions to the development of learning, progress, e
mployment and transmission of works through modern communication and information technologies.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'94}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 The message is obvious: opposing the spread of intellectual property values makes you a backward-looking element. And conversely, to embrace such values is to be a moderniser and a nation-builder. 
\par 
\par A linked theme, pushed incessantly by WIPO, is the role of intellectual property as a way of encouraging inward investment to the South and of integrating the South into the global economy. In fact, additional foreign
 direct investment and transfer of technology are often suggested to be contingent upon adoption of intellectual property rights.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  E. Wolfard, 
\lquote International Trade in Intellectual property: The Emerging GATT Regime,\rquote  (1990) 49 University of Toronto Faculty of Law Review, 106, 118 (stating that \'93technology drives investment\'94 and thus technology is \'93
reluctant to flow where it is not protected.\'94). Journal of Transnational Law 243, p. 264.}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  New }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 elites}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 
\rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  and budding entrepreneurs in the South are a particular target for these messages.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 WIPO}{
\f1\fs24\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 s }{\f1\fs24\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 technical assistance}{\f1\fs24\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 
\rquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  programmes}{\f1\fs24\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid1058519 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 As for the specific activities undertaken by WIPO, because of the prescriptive }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 inevitability}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  motif by which the adoption of copyright is advocated, many of its programmes are classed as so-called }{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 technical assistance}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  to countries of the South. This is a euphemism for the organisation}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 s pretension that what it is doing is simply helping these countries to comply with their obligations under the TRIPS Agreement. WIPO offers, for example
, intellectual property training to professionals and officials from Southern countries who are then expected, on return to their home countries, to teach in law schools or to work in IP national administration offices respectively. In the case of the }{
\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620 former,}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620  ever}{\insrsid15619334\charrsid5465620  helpful}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid15619334\charrsid5465620  }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 WIPO may even offer to help in drawing up course syllabi and provide WIPO-produced teaching materials. The supposedly value-neutral }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
technical assistance}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  extends even further. It is not uncommon for WIPO to }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 offer}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  countries }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 assistance}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 by drawing up their own copyright legislation to be adopted and incorporated into national law. This is one of the main ways by which harmonisation is achieved; the legislation across certain regions, such as the Southern Africa Development Community (SA
DC) and The}{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
is conspicuously similar. In any event, this is not difficult to do since WIPO deals with governments both at regional as well as national level. In the same vein, }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 sensitisation
}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  /}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 familiarisation}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 workshops and seminars, at which the virtues of copyright are preached, are a favourite past-time in this }{\insrsid15557040\charrsid5465620 lavishly funded }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 propaga}{\insrsid15557040\charrsid5465620 nda }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 process. WIPO}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 s target groups have traditionally included lawyers (paying audience), judges (paid and pampered audience), local musicians (}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 victims}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  of piracy) and government officials (wh}{\insrsid15557040\charrsid5465620 
o are usually up for an all-expenses paid trip to Switzerland.) }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 In more recent times, traditional healers or traditional medicine practitioners have also been scrumptiously courted 
since the emergence of traditional knowledge as a prominent international topic in intellectual property circles.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid576 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 {\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft3312\shptop-1353\shpright8351\shpbottom2395\shpfhdr0\shpbxcolumn\shpbxignore\shpbypara\shpbyignore\shpwr4\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz9\shplid1035
{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 202}}{\sp{\sn fFlipH}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFlipV}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lTxid}{\sv 655360}}{\sp{\sn fRecolorFillAsPicture}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fUseShapeAnchor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn shadowOpacity}{\sv 32768}}
{\sp{\sn shadowOffsetX}{\sv 76200}}{\sp{\sn shadowOffsetY}{\sv -76200}}{\sp{\sn fShadow}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn f3D}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn pWrapPolygonVertices}{\sv 8;8;(386,-691);(-64,-86);(-64,21514);(21664,21514);(21857,21427);(22114,20736)
;(22114,-691);(386,-691)}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\shptxt \pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid223083 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid223083 \'93In traditional African societies, information and life skills have always been passed on from generation to generation, through oral traditi
ons and folklore for the good of the whole society. With the new trade agreements being negotiated and drawn up under the Trade-Related aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), the World Trade Organisation (WTO), and the World Intellectual Propert
y Rights Organisation (WIPO), African Societies are required to adopt copyright regimes that are contrary to the African understanding of information sharing.\'94
\par 
\par }{\cs29\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid223083 Gertrude Kayaga Mulindwam, Chairperson \endash  Organising Committee, African Copyright Forum Conference, Uganda, November 2005. }{\b\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid223083 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid223083 
\par }}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt9\dptxbx\dptxlrtb{\dptxbxtext\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid223083 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid223083 \'93In traditional African societies, information and life skills have always been passed on from generation to generation, through oral traditi
ons and folklore for the good of the whole society. With the new trade agreements being negotiated and drawn up under the Trade-Related aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS), the World Trade Organisation (WTO), and the World Intellectual Propert
y Rights Organisation (WIPO), African Societies are required to adopt copyright regimes that are contrary to the African understanding of information sharing.\'94
\par 
\par }{\cs29\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid223083 Gertrude Kayaga Mulindwam, Chairperson \endash  Organising Committee, African Copyright Forum Conference, Uganda, November 2005. }{\b\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid223083 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid223083 
\par }}\dpx3312\dpy-1353\dpxsize5039\dpysize3748\dpfillfgcr255\dpfillfgcg255\dpfillfgcb255\dpfillbgcr255\dpfillbgcg255\dpfillbgcb255\dpfillpat1\dplinew15\dplinecor0\dplinecog0\dplinecob0}}}}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 Here are some statistics on WIPO}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 s formal pro-IP educational activities. A WIPO announcement in February 2005 noted that }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 since}{
\cf18\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 the launch of its General Course on Intellectual Property (DL 101), in 1999, some 33,000 participants from 180 countries have registered for the course. In 2003, an interactive learning management system was deployed by the Academy which provided on-line
 learning resources for participants and a live discussion forum. The Academy}{\cf18\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\cf18\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
s tutorial faculty includes some 80 experienced IP teachers and experts from across the globe who tutor in seven languages [\'85
] The course is available in 7 languages (Arabic, Chinese, English, French, Portuguese, Spanish, and Russian) and is free-of-charge.}{\cf18\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'94}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 HYPERLINK http://www.wipo.int/wilma/pressinfo-en/200502/msg00004.html }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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\par 
\par An additional aspect of WIPO}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 s }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 technical assistance}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  programmes is the}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 modernisation}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  of existing }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 copyright administrative systems and the building of new ones in the South. WIPO also encourages the establishment of new national reprographic rights organisation}{
\cf1\insrsid16411791\charrsid5465620 s}{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  (RROs) within these countries; as outlined in }{\cf1\insrsid6433445\charrsid5465620 a}{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 previous section of this dossier, it has had some successes in this area. Another key area of WIPO activity, especially in the South, is }{\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 standard setting}{
\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  and, in particular the esta
blishment of closed (as opposed to open) standards, meaning proprietary standards. Finally, WIPO is involved in the proposing, drafting and creating }{\cf1\insrsid4662368 of }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 a series of }{
\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 soft laws}{\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  involving copyright, that is, laws that are }{
\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 technically non-binding norms, but which states nonetheless follow in practice or to which at least they subscribe}{\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'94}{
\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  and }{\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 which overcome the drawbacks of [formal] treaty making.}{\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'94}{
\cs18\b\cf1\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Musungu and Dutfield, op cit. }}}{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  All of these seemingly neutral law making act
ivities are freighted with a clear political and ideological message}{\cf1\insrsid16411791\charrsid5465620  about the supposedly }{\cf1\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620 indisputable}{\cf1\insrsid3106114\charrsid5465620 
 virtues of copyright and its value system. }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 .
\par 
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{\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft1392\shptop-10\shpright8232\shpbottom1920\shpfhdr0\shpbxcolumn\shpbxignore\shpbypara\shpbyignore\shpwr4\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz10\shplid1036{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 202}}{\sp{\sn fFlipH}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFlipV}{\sv 0}}
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{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\shptxt \pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid223083 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid223083 \lquote 
Why should developing countries provide a very real right to protection for foreign works and inventions in their countries in return for the largely theoretical right of receiving that treatment in developed countries?\rquote 
\par 
\par }{\i\f66\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid223083 Simon Butt, \lquote Intellectual Property in Indonesia: A problematic legal transplant,\rquote 2002 European Intellectual Property Review, 431. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt10\dptxbx\dptxlrtb{\dptxbxtext\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid223083 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\f66\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid223083 \lquote Why should developing countries provide a very real right to protection for foreign works and inventions i
n their countries in return for the largely theoretical right of receiving that treatment in developed countries?\rquote 
\par 
\par }{\i\f66\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid223083 Simon Butt, \lquote Intellectual Property in Indonesia: A problematic legal transplant,\rquote 2002 European Intellectual Property Review, 431. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}\dpx1392\dpy-10\dpxsize6840\dpysize1930\dpfillfgcr255\dpfillfgcg255\dpfillfgcb255\dpfillbgcr255\dpfillbgcg255\dpfillbgcb255\dpfillpat1\dplinew15\dplinecor0\dplinecog0\dplinecob0}}}}{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 One t
actic regularly used by WIPO in the South is to focus on attempting to win over one sector of the }{\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 creative community}{\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{
\cf1\insrsid3106114\charrsid5465620 ; }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 musicians are a particularly favoured target group}{\cf1\insrsid3106114\charrsid5465620 . The aim is to show }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 the purported benefits }{
\cf1\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620 of the}{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  copyright system }{\cf1\insrsid3106114\charrsid5465620 for them }{\cf1\insrsid6433445\charrsid5465620 and }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 then }{
\cf1\insrsid3106114\charrsid5465620 to }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 argu}{\cf1\insrsid3106114\charrsid5465620 e}{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 that this target group demonstrates how the whole South and its various nations can benefit. This is very similar to the approach used by the World Bank with its }{\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
Nashville in Africa}{\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  sessions held in 2001 with groups of African musicians.}{\cs18\b\cf1\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  For a
 brief critique of the \lquote Nashville in Africa\rquote  project, see Story, CIPR Study, pp. 12-13. }}}{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  }{\cf1\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620 
On the economic level, such projects (and their underlying message) are highly misleading. }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
On the one hand, the actual number of musicians from the South who could benefit from closer integration into the world copyright system and its commodification/royalties approach}{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  \endash  }{
\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 and how much they would benefit}{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  \endash  }{\cf1\insrsid16011271\charrsid5465620 i}{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 s vastly inflated. (At the same time, t
he well-documented corruption and nepotism that }{\cf1\insrsid4679356\charrsid5465620 envelops }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
music collecting societies in the South is not mentioned or glossed over by WIPO).On the other hand, the question is never asked: even if a small number of creators, such as musicians, could}{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  \endash  }{
\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 or would}{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  \endash  }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
actually benefit financially from a closer integration, how much would full compliance with the global copyright system cost the overwhelming majority of the population (and hence the nation) in higher consumer costs (e.g. for educational materials, s
oftware ) and in copyright royalty fees to be sent, usually in scarce foreign currency, to rich industrialised countries and their media, music, publishing and other sectors of their }{\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{
\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 copyright industries}{\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  }{\cf1\insrsid4679356\charrsid5465620 ? }{\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
In short, key financial calculations are ignored. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid576 {\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 WIPO}{
\f1\fs24\cf1\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\f1\fs24\cf1\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 s veneer of liberalism
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par WIPO maintains a veneer of liberalism and pretended consultation, transparency, and inclusiveness that hides its actual political and economic goals}{\insrsid3934343\charrsid5465620 ; indeed, this attitude becomes a form }{
\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620 of }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid15861282\charrsid5465620 repressive}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  tolerance.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 Take, for example, this promotional message announcing }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\cf18\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 the Online Forum on Intellectual Property in the Information Society}{\cf18\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote 
}{\cf18\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 , hosted by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) from June 1 to 15, 2005.}{\i\super\insrsid13501173\charrsid13501173  \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13501173 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.wipo.int/ipisforum/en/" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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2f002f007700770077002e007700690070006f002e0069006e0074002f00690070006900730066006f00720075006d002f0065006e002f000000000000000000000f00000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.wipo.int/ipisforum/en/}}}}}{
\cf18\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  It states that: 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid576 
The WIPO Online Forum is designed to enable and encourage an open debate on issues related to intellectual property in the information society, and in light of the goals of the World Summit on the Inf
ormation Society (WSIS). This presents a unique opportunity for all to engage in the emerging debate on i}{\i\insrsid13528279 ntellectual property in our day. }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid576 \'85
The WIPO Online Forum is open to participation by all interested persons \endash  you are invited to join in online discussi
ons over a period of two weeks from June 1, 2005. It is hoped that the Online Forum will further inform the discussions taking place during the second phase of WSIS. The conclusions of the Online Forum will form part of WIPO}{
\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid576 s contribution to the WSIS Tunis Summit.}{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid576 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par WIPO documents reflect this purported liberalism. For example, WIPO}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 s commentary for this online forum on the question }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 what is the impact of copyright law, both at international and national level, on education and research?}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'94}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  argues that
\par }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid576 
copyright law gives authors the choice of how to structure their relationships with consumers\emdash 
whether to reserve their rights against all uses, charge for some or all uses of content, or make their works available free of charge with or without restrictions upon future use.}{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid576  
}{\cs18\i\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid576 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Online Forum on Intellectual Property in the Information Society, Theme Four 
\par }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.wipo.int/roller/comments/ipisforum/Weblog/theme_four_what_is_the" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.wipo.int/roller/comments/ipisforum/Weblog/theme_four_what_is_the}}}}}{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid576 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid576 
\par }{\insrsid6111167\charrsid5465620 But, in fact, }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 copyright law is }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 not}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  a requirement for structuring such relationships. And, }{
\insrsid6111167\charrsid5465620 moreover,}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  most authors and creators do }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 not }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
have such a choice; due to unequal bargaining power, for example between an individual musician and a multinational recording company, the musician is required\emdash more accurately, coerced\emdash to assign her/his copyright to the recording company.

\par 
\par }{\cf18\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 We can conclude then that WIPO}{\cf18\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\cf18\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 s }{\cf18\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\cf18\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
liberalism}{\cf18\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\cf18\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  operates within a very controlled agenda that again }{\cf18\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\cf18\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 forgets}{
\cf18\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\cf18\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  some critical economic and political realities.
\par }{\cf18\insrsid223083\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc109392491}The WIPO Development Agenda{\*\bkmkend _Toc109392491}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par In the past 18 months, a central issue before WIPO has been the WIPO }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 Development Agenda}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
; this agenda has obvious implications for copyright issues in the South. Here is a brief backgrounder from the Electronic Frontier Foundation that describes this moment and its current possibilities, albeit in rather inflated terms:
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid576 
In October 2004, the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) took the historic step of agreeing to consider the impact of its decisions on developing nations, including assessing the impact of intellectual property law and policy on technol
ogical innovation, access to knowledge, and even human health. What}{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid576 
s at stake is much more significant than the harmony or disharmony of IP regulations. WIPO decisions affect everything from the availability and price of AIDS drugs, to the patterns of int
ernational development, to the communications architecture of the Internet.
\par 
\par WIPO held a meeting in April to discuss Brazil and Argentina}{\i\insrsid10166911\charrsid576 \rquote }{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid576 s Proposal to Establish a Development Agenda [PDF], which had been endorsed by hundreds of individuals and public-inte
rest non-governmental organizations (NGOs), including EFF and the Consumer Project on Technology (CP Tech), through the Geneva Declaration on the Future of WIPO, and the subsequent thoughtful Elaboration on Issues Raised in the Development Agenda proposal
 
from the 14 countries in the Group of Friends of Development. This is an extraordinary breakthrough. The Development Agenda gives WIPO the opportunity to move beyond the narrow view that any and all IP protection is beneficial, and choose instead to act s
trategically to spur economic growth, foster innovation, and help humanity. }{\cs18\i\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid576 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
HYPERLINK http://www.eff.org/IP/WIPO/dev_agenda/ }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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0000007200200000}}}{\fldrslt {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.eff.org/IP/WIPO/dev_agenda/}}}}}{\i\insrsid11107820\charrsid576 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
\par Acting on the purported liberalism of WIPO and the claim from some working in the }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 access to knowledge}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  treaty }{\insrsid12536873\charrsid5465620 group }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 that WIPO can be }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \lquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 taken over}{
\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \rquote }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  by NGOs and allies,}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 This tactic/ possibility was suggested by a representative of the CP Tech group at an \lquote access to knowledge\rquote  conference in London in May 2005. For more on this group, see Section 5.}{\insrsid8483307 7}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . }}}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
 a number of NGOs attended and spoke briefly at the WIPO Intersessional Intergovernmental Meetings held in Geneva in late June 2005. A sample of their submissions is one that was presented by the advocacy group, IP Justice.}{
\cs18\b\super\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  IP Justice Policy Paper for the WIPO Development Agenda, 20-22 June 2005, Geneva Switzerland, available at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 HYPERLINK http://www.ipjustice.org/WIPO/WIPO_DA_IP_Justice_Policy_Paper.shtml }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b8800000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e00690070006a007500730074006900630065002e006f00720067002f005700490050004f002f005700490050004f005f00440041005f00490050005f00
4a007500730074006900630065005f0050006f006c006900630079005f00500061007000650072002e007300680074006d006c000000000000000069000000720000}}}{\fldrslt {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.ipjustice.org/WIPO/WIPO_DA_IP_Justice_Policy_Paper.shtml}}}}}{
\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  But very little was accomplished. One report, dated 27 June}{\insrsid12536873\charrsid5465620  2005, }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 concluded: }{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 \'93}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 
The second meeting on the WIPO Development Agenda is now finished, and the opponents of reform have made their strategy clear: tie-up the meeting in procedural posturing to forestall substanti
ve debate on the real issues. Even as the Friends of Development tried to discuss unassailable reforms like an ethics code for WIPO, the proceedings kept getting sidetracked by countries that wanted to cut off debate.}{\insrsid10166911\charrsid5465620 
\'94}{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620  
\par 
\par As more and more activists are beginning to realise, the focus needs to become not }{\insrsid6979388\charrsid5465620 on }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 how to }{\insrsid5059200\charrsid5465620 take over WIPO \endash  an unlikely scenario indeed 
\endash  or how to reform it, }{\insrsid11107820\charrsid5465620 but rather }{\insrsid7736806 on }{\insrsid739058\charrsid5465620 it }{\insrsid9045278\charrsid5465620 how to abolish it}{\insrsid5059200\charrsid5465620  and start b}{
\insrsid14623236\charrsid5465620 uilding }{\insrsid5059200\charrsid5465620 a new organisation from the ground up.}{\insrsid16018739\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid3282187 
\par \page }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\i\f1\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\insrsid7603589\charrsid7603589 \page }{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734284}SECTION }{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid4936081\charrsid5465620 4}{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  \endash }{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid4936081\charrsid5465620  }{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
SERIOUS AND DAMAGING BARRIERS TO THE USE OF COPYRIGHTED MATERIALS IN COUNTRIES OF THE SOUTH{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734284} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\qj \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid7603589 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734285}4.1 Introduction
{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734285} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335 Section Four, the longest section of the dossier, examines how copyri
ght laws, their presumptions, and the fine print of domestic copyright statutes and international conventions block access to and use of all types of copyrighted works by those who live in the South.}{\insrsid7603589  }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335 

\par 
\par The issue has been framed essentially under three themes: }{\insrsid14305830 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx0\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls45\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 {
\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335 the barriers that have been and are being created }{\insrsid1121032 to}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335  access in the South to educational materials, technical information and }{\insrsid7603589 \lquote }{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335 knowledge}{\insrsid7603589 \rquote }{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335  created in the North}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335 ; }{\insrsid7603589 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335 the barriers that are created within the South (though often not by the South but due 
instead to the provisions of international copyright conventions) }{\insrsid1121032 to}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335  access to }{\insrsid7603589 \lquote }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335 knowledge}{\insrsid7603589 \rquote }{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335  and technical information }{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335 created in the South}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335 ;}{\insrsid7603589 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335 
the cultural, social, and political consequences of the essentially one-way flow of copyrighted works such as books and movies }{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335 from the North to users in the South}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335 . }{\insrsid7603589 

\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid6978335 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc109392502}Greater access to \lquote knowledge\rquote  and technical information created in the North{\*\bkmkend _Toc109392502}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid9314480\charrsid5465620 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 This was a key focus for the demands of newly-independent countries in the South during the 1950\rquote s and 1960\rquote s in the period labelled \lquote the international crisis of copyright\rquote 
, an era discussed in Section Five of the dossier. Fifty years later and given the continuing uneven global development and the fact that an overwhelming percentage of copyright works of all types are still produced in the North, this particular \lquote 
flow\rquote  \endash  or, more accurately, lack of flow \endash  remains an ongoing point of conflict and hardship. In this section, we look at how copyright acts as a}{\insrsid1121032 n}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 access barrier in a variety of locations and 
programmes and for tens of millions of people across the South: in libraries, on distance learning courses, on the Internet and in the use of computers themselves, in the translation of copyrighted texts into other languages, for students, teachers and un
iversity researchers, for the visually impaired, and for the public generally. We commence this section with an article on the duration of }{\insrsid5903513\charrsid5465620 copyright.}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid576 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc109392503}Access}{
\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  barriers to \lquote knowledge\rquote  and technical information in the South{\*\bkmkend _Toc109392503}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par With the recent expansion of copyright systems in the South and with the increased production of works in some \endash  though not all \endash 
 such countries, this aspect of the access question is primarily an internal or domestic (or, in some cases, regional) matter f
or the countries of the South. This section of the dossier only addresses this aspect of the access issue in a few isolated spots; it is one issue that deserves much fuller discussion and documentation with practical domestic examples from the South. 
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc109392504}
The wider embrace of the ideology of copyright across the South, a goal that the World Intellectual Property Organisation is working hard to achieve (as we explained in Section 3.9), will also lead to the barricading of more works behind locked and
 privatised copyright doors. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
The cultural, social and political consequences of the one-way flow of copyrighted works from the North to the South}{\cs18\f1\fs24\super\insrsid576 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid13848513 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid13848513  For a discussion of this }{
\insrsid8483307 topic from the viewpoint of moral philosophy, see Johannes J. Britz and Peter J. Lor, \lquote A moral reflection on the information flow from North to South: an African perspective\rquote  Libri vol.53 (2003): 160-173.}}}{
\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  {\*\bkmkend _Toc109392504}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid576 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par Up to this point in the introduction, we have put quotation marks around the word \lquote knowledge\rquote . We have done so for g
ood reason as we think it is fallacious to assume that, on the one hand, the rich countries of the North are the source of all the important knowledge in the world and that, on the other hand, the countries}{\insrsid810358  of the South are interested }{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 only in being passive
 receptacles of this knowledge. Western chauvinism and a sense of superiority on this issue of knowledge and its use are strongly entrenched. Yet, this is a complex issue that is addressed only briefly at }{\insrsid6819388 the }{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 end of Section 4 of the dossier; it also requir
es further discussion, debate, and documentation (which we have only begun in Copy/South). One question that needs to be examined is this: Should the South endorse the notion of an unrestricted \lquote free flow\rquote 
 within the global marketplace of copyrighted works and cease to worry about the wider social and political consequences of what is sometimes called \lquote cultural imperialism\rquote ? This, we suggest, is }{\insrsid810358 a }{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 dangerous course of action to take, especially after reading excerpts (found in Section 4.13) from the writings and speeches of those in the United States who encourage this particular form of knowledge transfer.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 The role of copyright 

\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par Obviously copyright laws and the global copyright system are }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 not }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 the only barrier \endash  or even, in some cases, the most important barrier \endash 
 to access. In fact, in some poorer parts of the South, }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 cop}{\i\insrsid9516874 yright is almost a}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  non-existent issue}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 as traditional hard copy texts, such as books, are not available and computer use and I}{\insrsid9516874 nternet access is non-existent \'85 }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 or available only to a tiny elit
e. So income levels are one determining factor for access. The level of state financial support for schools and libraries is another, though copyright laws certainly add to the costs of providing instructional materials and the purchasing of books for lib
r
aries. Other access barriers are primarily economic and technical, whether the shortage of photocopiers or the shortage of computers and telephones and other telecommunications linkages that are taken for granted in many parts of the North. In such circum
s
tances, copyright restrictions add an additional obstruction, an obstruction, we should add, that is seldom discussed in policy studies about the South and its way forward. This section of the dossier is one attempt to try to overcome this important omiss
ion. }{\insrsid13848513 
\par \page }{\insrsid13848513\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid5903513 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734286}4.2 Extending copyright }{
\b0\fs28\insrsid5465620 terms}{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid5903513  extends privatisation{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734286} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid7603589 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid883974 Copyright }{\insrsid7603589 law can create some very puzzling scenarios, indeed some downright absurd ones for accessing protected works. Consider the following hypothetical situation rel
ated to the extension of the term of copyright: 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 A Spanish literature teacher in Chile, let
\rquote s call him Juan, needs to provide each of his 15 students with }{\i\insrsid16653804 a }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 copy of a short book (40 pages) of poems for use on his course. The book was written by a poet, let\rquote 
s call her Maria, and published in Spain in 1935. Maria\rquote s book is out of print and so it cannot be purchased anywhere, including in Chile or Spain. Juan doe
s, however, have a copy in his personal library and wants to use his own edition to make the photocopies. Maria died 56 }{\i\insrsid16653804 years }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
ago in 1950 and before she died, she transferred her ownership of copyright in the poems (known as assigning copyright) to a Spanish publishing company because, at the time, she needed money to pay off some bills. (There are very few rich poets.) 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589 
\par }{\insrsid7603589 Y}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid2842655 ou might think that}{\insrsid7603589  }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid2842655 there would not be a problem }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid6378747 in 2006}{\insrsid7603589  }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid2842655 
for Juan to photocopy }{\insrsid7603589 an }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid2842655 out-of-print}{\insrsid7603589 ,}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid2842655  19}{\insrsid7603589 35 }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid2842655 book and pass it out to his student
s for their reading and studying purposes}{\insrsid7603589 . I}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9902572 n fact, }{\insrsid7603589 
there is. If he goes ahead and photocopies this book of poems and passes it on to his students, Juan is liable to face a civil action (a private legal action initiated by the Spanish company) for copyrigh
t infringement; in some countries, he might also face a criminal prosecution. Why? For infringement purposes, it does not matter that the book is out of print. Nor that Juan owns a copy in his personal library. Nor does it matter that Maria is dead and, i
n any event, that she had assigned the copyright to a company before she died (\'85.or that Juan did not know about the copyright assignment and that he could not track down this Spanish company to ask permission to copy the book}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid6378747  }{\insrsid7603589 even if he had known about the
 assignment.) And finally, nor does it matter that the reason Juan was doing the copying was for a non-profit educational purpose; there are no such blanket exemptions available in copyright law. 
\par 
\par What }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7864891 does matter}{\insrsid7603589  is that Chile has recently extended the term of copyright }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid3608085 from}{\insrsid7603589 
 a term or period of the life of author (that is, from the date the author dies), plus 50 years }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid3608085 to}{\insrsid7603589  a term of life of the author, plus 70 years. Because Spain, where the book was published, and 
Chile, where it is to be used, are both member}{\insrsid16653804 s}{\insrsid7603589  of the 1886 Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works,}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 See Section Six, Glossary. }}}{\insrsid7603589  copyright in this 1935 book of poems will not expire in Chile and in Spain until 70 years after t
he year Maria died (1950), which is 2020. And while Juan and the university in Chile that employs him is not likely to actually face a civil action (the courts would grind to a halt if every infringement was prosecuted and many of us unintentionally infri
n
ge copyright regularly or must do so because there are no other alternative and sensible way to access and distribute materials), the fact remains that copyright term extension is creating an increasingly precarious situation for those who wish to use wor
k
s legally protected by copyright. Numbers of countries in the South have, in the past five years, made the situation even worse, often as a result of growing pressures from the United States and, to a lesser extent, from the European Union. As a South Afr
ican educational copyright expert has stated, \'93copyright term extension threatens to make criminals out of hundreds of teachers and librarians who simply want to provide materials for their students.\'94 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
The legal basics of the copyright term issue 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par Here are the legal basics of the copyright term question: 
\par 
\par Under the provisions of Article 7(1) of the Berne Convention, the term of copyright protection \'93shall be the life of the author and fifty years after his [or her] death.\'94 This means that every country wh
ich is a member of the Berne Union must provide copyright protection for the works ( e.g. poems, novels, music, photographs) produced not only within its own country, but also in all other members of the Berne Union for this same period; there are 160 mem
bers of the Berne Union (as of November 2005). However, further along in Article 7, it states that member countries \'93may grant a term of protection in excess of those provided by the preceding paragraphs.\'94
 There is no wording in Berne that establishes what the maximum allowable term is and so, for example, any country could legally establish a term of life of the author, plus 500 years, or longer. 
\par 
\par Especially in recent years, copyright owners (who, in most cases, are }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 not}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  the actual creators of the works in 
question) have been pushing for longer and longer copyright terms. Any actual creators/authors directly affected would have died decades ago. Jack Valenti of the US, president of the Motion Picture Association of America from 1966 to 2004, once suggested 
infamously that the term should be \'93forever less one day.\'94 These \lquote copyright industries\rquote 
, as they call themselves, want to delay for as long as possible the date by which materials must go into the public domain and hence when they can be freely available for all to use without restrictions. 
\par 
\par Many criticisms have been made about the 1998 extension of copyright in the United States under the provisions of the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 For one example, see the excellent website \lquote Opposing Copyright Extension\rquote  at: 
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
HYPERLINK http://homepages.law.asu.edu/%7Edkarjala/OpposingCopyrightExtension/ }{\fs20\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b8a00000068007400740070003a002f002f0068006f006d006500700061006700650073002e006c00610077002e006100730075002e006500640075002f0025003700450064006b00610072006a0061006c0061002f00
4f00700070006f00730069006e00670043006f00700079007200690067006800740045007800740065006e00730069006f006e002f0000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://homepages.law.asu.edu/%7Edkarjala/OpposingCopyrightExtension/}}}{
\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 . This section of the dossier examines the extension of copyright term across the global South and its effects across three-quarters of the globe. 
\par 
\par As stated above, numbers of countries in the South have jumped aboard the \lquote extend copyright term\rquote  train. Although the situation is changing on almost a monthly basis and is somewhat complicated}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 For further details, see }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 HYPERLINK http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/okbooks.html }{\fs20\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b6400000068007400740070003a002f002f006f006e006c0069006e00650062006f006f006b0073002e006c006900620072006100720079002e007500700065006e006e002e006500640075002f006f006b0062006f00
6f006b0073002e00680074006d006c0000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://onlinebooks.library.upenn.edu/okbooks.html}}}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
, it has been reported that in Morocco, Madagascar, Ghana, Mozambique, Nigeria, Chile, Costa Rica,
 Ecuador, Paraguay, Nicaragua, Peru and Singapore, the term has been increased to life of the author, plus 70 years. In July 2003, Mexico increased its term to life, plus 100 years, which appears to give this country the longest term of any country on the
 globe. (Cote d\rquote 
Ivoire is second, at lifetime of the author, plus 99 years.) Other countries, such as the Dominican Republic and El Salvador appear poised to also change to lifetime, plus 70 years. (Usually all such extensions apply to both existing, create
d under previous legislation, and new works to be created in the future.) Relentless pressure is being exerted on other countries, such as South Africa, to also increase its term to life, plus 70 years. There, as elsewhere, the pressure is usually coming 
as a key clause in new and proposed free trade agreements between various countries and the United States.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 For background on current Free Trade Agreements, see Section 2.4 of the dossier. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  
\par 
\par Yet, there has also been resistance and opposition to such US p
ressures to extend the term of copyright. In October 2002, the government of Taiwan, for example, rebuffed US pressures to extend its term to life, plus 70 years, during Taiwan-US intellectual property negotiations. Outside the offices of the Board of For
eign Trade in Taipei, a large group of university students protested against the US pressure, shouting \'93knowledge cannot be monopolised.\'94 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
Multi-nationals are the main beneficiaries of term extension 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par Who benefits from such increased monopolisation and privatisation of knowledge when countries in the South cave in to US pressures? The main beneficiaries now \endash  as they will be also in coming years \endash 
 are large multi-national corporations located in the United States and Europe; they are, by a wide margin, the richest rightsholders in copyrighted works and have the deepest (and widest) \lquote warehouses\rquote 
 of already copyrighted works. Only the most naive person would believe, for example, that the US put pressure on Mexico to increase its copyright term to the lifetim
e of the author, plus 100 years, because the US government wanted the songs and stories and artwork of Mexican composers or novelists or artists to gain extra years of copyright protection within Mexico. Instead, the aim was to gain an additional 20 or 40
 or more years of revenue }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 for US-owned works used in Mexico by Mexicans}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 . 
\par 
\par The main consequence of extending the term of copyright \endash  in both the South and the North \endash  is that fewer and fewer works will enter the public domain and }{\insrsid12798556 will do so at later and lat}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
er dates; until such works enter the public domain, they will have the potential to earn more money for their owners, who again, are seldom the original creators. And in exchange for what supposed benefits? First decisively exposed as a self-serving ficti
on more than 160 years ago}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  T. B. Macaulay, Speech to the British House of Commons, 5 February 1841. Available at: 
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
HYPERLINK http://www.kuro5hin.org/?op=displaystory;sid=2002/4/25/1345/03329 }{\fs20\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b8400000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e006b00750072006f003500680069006e002e006f00720067002f003f006f0070003d0064006900730070006c0061007900730074006f00720079003b00
7300690064003d0032003000300032002f0034002f00320035002f0031003300340035002f003000330033003200390000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.kuro5hin.org/?op=displaystory;sid=2002/4/25/1345/03329}}}{
\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  , the main rationale for term extension is the assumption that authors and composers and artists will write more and better works and spend longer at their desks }{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 today in 2006}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  because they want to provide greater financial rewards not only }{\insrsid12798556\charrsid5465620 for }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 their
 children and their grandchildren (both of whom may be unborn and hence may only be }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 possible benefactors}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  in the future }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
if and only if the original author retains copyright}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 ) but also for their great grandchildren and great-great grandchildren who }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 may be alive}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  }{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 in the year 2131}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  . (The example assumes}{\insrsid12798556  that the author is now aged }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
25 and dies when he or she is 80 and that the work is still a saleable commodity in 2131.) Little wonder then that Macaulay, who exposed this fiction so many years ago, labelled copyright \'93a tax on readers\'85.\'94}{
\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid12798556 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid.}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  
\par 
\par Two further economic realities are often forgotten as well. }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 First}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 , the economics of copyright means that, while the first copy of a CD or software may require a significant initi
al investment by the producer (but often also by the actual creator), the cost of all additional copies produced, such as those available and sold during the period of additional copyright term, are very cheap. They can be stamped out on presses for mere 
pennies per copy. In other words, copyright term extension creates what can only be called \lquote pure windfall profits\rquote  for copyright owners of existing copyright works. }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 Second}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
, adding an additional 20 or 50 or more years of copyright term adds \endash  indeed ensures if the product remains marketable \endash 
 additional generations of revenue streams for such corporations. For users and consumers in the South, these additional streams add additional generations of costs and, ultimately, debts. At a time when many countries in
 the South are trying to reduce their debt burdens, increasing the term of copyright means that they are literally mortgaging their financial futures; instead, they should be considering how they can provide more and better materials to their citizens at 
cheaper prices today and in coming years. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
Estimating the costs of term extension 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par Few reliable economic studies have yet been able to estimate how much copyright term extension will cost individual countries in the South; admittedly it is a difficult cal
culation to make. One study from Australia, which has also recently increased its term from life, plus 50 years, to life plus 70 years, is instructive for far less developed countries. According to Australian National University economics professor Philip
pa Dee, Australia\rquote s extension of copyright, which was part of its free trade agreement with the US, will cost Australia up to AU$88 million a year and AU$700 million in the future.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307  \lquote }{
\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Big }{\fs20\insrsid8483307 FTA stough brewing on copyright\rquote }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 , 30 June 2004, Bilaterals.org., at }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 H
YPERLINK http://www.bilaterals.org/article.php3?id_article=737 }{\fs20\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b6c00000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e00620069006c00610074006500720061006c0073002e006f00720067002f00610072007400690063006c0065002e0070006800700033003f0069006400
5f00610072007400690063006c0065003d0037003300370000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.bilaterals.org/article.php3?id_article=737}}}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 And is there really an incentive for authors and composers? A total of 17 leading US economists, including five Nobel Prize winners, to
ld the US Congress in 2002 that adding 20 more years of copyright term in the United States would create no significant incentive for the creation of new works in that country. How would an additional 20 years create an incentive for authors in Peru or Si
ngapore? And how can there be an }{\lang3081\langfe2057\langnp3081\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
incentive created by the retrospective extension of the copyright term, that is, adding an additional 20 or more years to works written or composed by persons who have long since died? \'93Dead men do not write poetry,\'94 as one 
commentator put it. Nor does our dead Maria. 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par And who loses is becoming clearer every day. Let us assume poet Maria also wrote a best-selling book of poems used as a school text in Chile and with average annual sales in that country of 2,000 copies. And l
et us assume that the wholesale cost of that book is US$10.00 = Chilean Pesos 5,160.00. Chile\rquote s decision to increase the copyright term by 20 years means, in the case of Maria\rquote 
s book, that from 2000 to 2020, the additional cost to Chileans or Chilean educational authorities will be 2,000 copies X $US10.00 X 20 years = $US400, 000.00 (or Chilean Pesos 206,481.00). Not surprisingly, such books can seldom be afforded. }{
\insrsid14305830\charrsid5465620 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par We can fairly conclude that copyright term extension is another barrier to access. Why the 
year that an author died, in this case 1950, should determine the term of copyright is a question which is seldom considered; such a determining factor makes even less sense when the author does not even own copyright in the work. And fifty years of copyr
ight protection after an author dies is already a very long period of time. Let\rquote s not forget that the first copyright law, Britain\rquote 
s Statute of Anne of 1709, was drafted at a time when books and papers circulated at a far slower pace than today. This statute awarded a term of 14 years }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 after publication}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 in most cases. In 2006, how can a 70 year term \endash  or longer as in Mexico \endash  }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 after an author dies}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  be justified? }{\insrsid7603589 
\par }{\insrsid13848513\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734287}4.}{\b0\fs28\insrsid4936081 3}{
\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589  }{\b0\fs28\insrsid15732060 Distance learners }{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid14184408 kept }{\b0\fs28\insrsid15732060 from }{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid14184408 study materials:}{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589  }{
\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid14184408 experiences from Kenya}{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589 {\*\bkmkend _Toc135734287} }{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid14184408 
\par }\pard\plain \s16\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tqc\tx4153\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\i\f87\fs20\lang1089\langfe1033\langnp1089\langfenp1033\insrsid7603589 

\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid15732060 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\lang1089\langfe2057\langnp1089\insrsid7603589\charrsid8326873 \'93
Someni vijana, muongeze pia bidii, mwisho wa kusoma mtapata kazi nzuri sana\'94 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\i\lang1089\langfe2057\langnp1089\insrsid7603589 
\par }{\lang1089\langfe2057\langnp1089\insrsid7603589\charrsid8596847 The chorus of this song}{\lang1089\langfe2057\langnp1089\insrsid7603589 , broadcast on a }{\lang1089\langfe2057\langnp1089\insrsid7603589\charrsid8596847 back-to-school radio show}{
\lang1089\langfe2057\langnp1089\insrsid7603589 , }{\lang1089\langfe2057\langnp1089\insrsid7603589\charrsid8596847 resonate}{\lang1089\langfe2057\langnp1089\insrsid13592033 s}{\lang1089\langfe2057\langnp1089\insrsid7603589\charrsid8596847 
 in every Kenyan child\rquote s ears }{\lang1089\langfe2057\langnp1089\insrsid7603589 during }{\lang1089\langfe2057\langnp1089\insrsid7603589\charrsid8596847 every school term. }{\lang1089\langfe2057\langnp1089\insrsid7603589 Translated, the chorus }{
\insrsid7603589 urges all of Kenya\rquote 
s young people to read so that, at the end of the day, they will be able to get a good job. And the benefits of having a good education outlined in that simple song are reflected in the economic disparity between those who are educated and those who are n
ot. As a recent World Bank-funded study done in Kenya concluded, those households with parents who were educated are less likely to suffer poverty than those with no education at all.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Muriithi Muriuki 'The Great Divide: Kenya's Richest And Poorest Areas' at }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.nationmedia.com/dailynation/nmgcontententry.asp?category_id=1&newsid=60611" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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65006e007400720079002e006100730070003f00630061007400650067006f00720079005f00690064003d00310026006e00650077007300690064003d00360030003600310031000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90bac00000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e006e006100740069006f006e
006d0065006400690061002e0063006f006d002f006400610069006c0079006e006100740069006f006e002f006e006d00670063006f006e00740065006e00740065006e007400720079002e006100730070003f00630061007400650067006f00720079005f00690064003d00310026006e00650077007300690064003d00
3600300036003100310000000100000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.nationmedia.com/dailynation/nmgcontententry.asp?category_id=1&newsid=60611}}}{\cs158\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid7603589  
\par 
\par Unfortunately in Kenya and in many o
ther African countries south of the Sahara, this gap continues to grow as few are able to afford the high costs of education and donor-dependant government budgets are no longer able to fund primary, let alone secondary and tertiary, education. Hence it i
s
 not an exaggeration to say that there is a crisis in higher education in Sub Saharan Africa. This diverse region suffers from a myriad of educational problems including the inability to accommodate the volume and variety of student demand, inflexible tea
c
hing methods that cannot accommodate a diverse student body, a lack of educational quality and, more devastatingly for both students and the government, the rising cost of education that is not sufficiently relevant to the labour market. This has resulted
 in a massive brain drain from the continent, but the option to travel abroad and study is a preserve of the rich. 
\par 
\par A number of African countries including Kenya have responded to this crisis by \'93liberalising\'94, that is, commercialising, their education sec
tor and permitting private institutions to set up tertiary institutions in their countries. While these have attempted to fill a gap, many see them as taking advantage of a desperate situation: the quality of education offered is questionable in some inst
a
nces. Nevertheless, these institutions have been unable to plug the hole, especially as the majority of these privately operated institutions tend to offer humanities-based courses rather than technically-based programmes. The former are administratively 
cheaper to offer}{\insrsid13592033  in comparison to the cost of }{\insrsid7603589 
putting up a medical school with necessary equipment or an engineering department that would be expensive to establish and maintain without any government financial support. 
\par 
\par On paper, distance education presen
ts itself as a feasible alternative for Sub Saharan Africa. It promises to solve many of the problems faced by government, such as the inability to construct teaching facilities and accommodation for an ever-increasing student body or to pay for a larger 
n
umber of teachers and lecturers. Distance learning would seem to allow for the provision of more affordable education to larger numbers of students and to reach those far from city hubs. In reality, however, many countries in this region have assigned dis
tance education a low priority as evidenced, for example, by the lack of a national policy}{\insrsid5903513  on distance learning in Kenya.}{\insrsid7603589 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
Delivering distance learning in Africa 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par Private enterprises have, instead, taken the lead in the provision of distance learning in this region; they use the following delivery models:
\par 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx0\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls46\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 {
\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 Distance learning via electronic means, as is done via African Virtual University (AVU), which is a World Bank initiative running in Kenya, Zimbabwe, Uganda, Ghana, Ethiopia and Tanzania. It is aimed at
 filling in the gaps caused by the inadequate provision of technology-based courses.
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}
Distance learning through 'affiliate' colleges. Over the past ten years or so, there has been a significant upsurge in the number of colleges offering degrees and diplom
as from national and foreign institutions in the developing world. This is often preferred as it }{\insrsid15496196 is }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 cheaper than studying abroad. 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}Distance learning through correspondence. This remains the oldest and, for institutions, the cheapest form of distance lear
ning. It involves the least amount of physical resources and has successfully been used by the University of South Africa (UNISA) and Strathmore University in Kenya.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par Yet, according to a study done by the Association for the Development of Education in Africa}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\lang1033\langfe2057\super\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 ADEA Working Group on Distance Learning and Open Learning 'Distance Education And Open Learning In Sub-Saharan Africa'
}{\i\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 at }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.adeanet.org/publications/docs/open learning 1.pdf" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000003d00000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0061006400650061006e00650074002e006f00720067002f007000750062006c00690063006100740069006f006e0073002f0064006f00630073002f006f00700065006e0020006c0065006100
72006e0069006e006700200031002e007000640066000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b7a00000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0061006400650061006e00650074002e006f00720067002f007000750062006c00690063006100740069006f006e0073002f0064006f00630073002f006f
00700065006e0020006c006500610072006e0069006e006700200031002e0070006400660000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.adeanet.org/publications/docs/open learning 1.pdf}}}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 , 
there are fewer than 150 distance education providers operating across Sub Saharan Africa today and governments have not warmed up to the concept as expected. So why has this concept borne so little fruit in Sub Saharan Africa? The most common reason give
n
 is that the cost of distance education is more expensive than conventional education and thus its survival rate is diminished. One example is the Radio Language Arts Programme in Kenya which closed when US Agency for International Development (USAID) fun
ds were no longer available. More recently, students in one program at the Africa Virtual University-Kenyatta University have been required to purchase textbooks worth USD 800, and even when substitutes were compiled at USD 100}{
\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \fi-180\li180\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin180\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Pauline Ngimwa\rquote s e-mail response of 8 December 2005 to question on the effect of copyright laws on Distance Learning.}}}
{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 , this cost still remained too dear for the majority in Sub Saharan Africa who live below the poverty line. 
\par 
\par At the same time, a seldom mentioned reason for the high contributory costs of distance education is the high costs associated with the operation of copyright laws; they create a thicket of access problems. Distance education requires that teaching materi
a
ls are often copied and distributed to students. Instructors and course designers often use copyrighted materials to design courses and teach and learners often must consult copyright materials for their learning requirements. For delivery purposes, most 
o
f these teaching materials are copied and distributed to students who are usually remotely located. In Kenya and elsewhere, copyright laws give rights owners the exclusive or sole right to copy and distribute their works. Because of this, copyright owners
,
 who are usually publishers, are able to charge arbitrary prices for access, backed up by the added threat that any unauthorised use of their works will be illegal in most national jurisdictions worldwide and that breaches can be prosecuted. As digitisati
on catches up with education, more and more materials are now being locked away behind subscription based databases which, when coupled with digital rights management systems}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 See Section 6, Glossary. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 , make them all the more difficult to access. 
\par }{\f40\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 Existi
ng laws do not facilitate distance learning 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 {\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft5520\shptop352\shpright8280\shpbottom3911\shpfhdr0\shpbxcolumn\shpbxignore\shpbypara\shpbyignore\shpwr4\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz12\shplid1037
{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 202}}{\sp{\sn fFlipH}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFlipV}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lTxid}{\sv 786432}}{\sp{\sn fRecolorFillAsPicture}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fUseShapeAnchor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn shadowOpacity}{\sv 32768}}
{\sp{\sn shadowOffsetX}{\sv -76200}}{\sp{\sn shadowOffsetY}{\sv -76200}}{\sp{\sn fShadow}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn f3D}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn pWrapPolygonVertices}{\sv 8;8;(-939,-729);(-939,20871);(-352,21144);(-352,21509);(21717,21509)
;(21600,-91);(20778,-729);(-939,-729)}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\shptxt \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5903513 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid5903513 
Tyrants and autocrats have always understood that literacy, learning, books and newspapers are potentially dangerous. They can put independent and even rebellious ideas }{\f66\insrsid8483307 in}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid5903513 
to the heads of their subjects.
\par 
\par }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid5903513 Carl Sagan, The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. 1997 p. 362
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt12\dptxbx\dptxlrtb{\dptxbxtext\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5903513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid5903513 
Tyrants and autocrats have always understood that literacy, learning, books and newspapers are potentially dangerous. They can put independent and even rebellious ideas }{\f66\insrsid8483307 in}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid5903513 
to the heads of their subjects.
\par 
\par }{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid5903513 Carl Sagan, The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark. 1997 p. 362
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}\dpx5520\dpy352\dpxsize2760\dpysize3559\dpfillfgcr255\dpfillfgcg255\dpfillfgcb255\dpfillbgcr255\dpfillbgcg255\dpfillbgcb255\dpfillpat1\dplinew15\dplinecor0\dplinecog0\dplinecob0}}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
This expensive and restrictive system does not augur well for developing countries that are largely importers of copyrighted material. Philip G. Altbach contends that the speci
fic needs of these countries will vary. In some cases, access to scientific journals and books at subsidized prices for a limited period would help greatly.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \fi-180\li180\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin180\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Philip G. Altbach, }{\b\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
The Subtle Inequalities Of Copyright\rquote , Bellagio Publishing Network at }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERL
INK "http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/publications/pub_pdf/copyright.pdf" }}{\fldrslt {\cs19\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/publications/pub_pdf/copyright.pdf}}}{
\lang1033\langfe2057\super\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  In other cases, local publishers with limited markets need easy and inexpensiv
e access to foreign books in order to translate them into a local language. What is certain is that copyright has served as a barrier to the development of distance learning in the countries of the South. Whereas distance learning students expect to recei
ve the same access to materials as their counterparts in the \lquote normal\rquote  stream of learning, the copyright holder expects to make profits from the sale of his work or from licences and royalties. Unfortunately because}{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  \'93copyright laws were not structured to facilitate distance learning\'94,}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \fi-180\li180\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin180\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Laura N. Gassaway, \lquote Impasse: Distance Learning and Copyright\rquote  at }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://moritzlaw.osu.edu/lawjournal/gasaway.htm" }}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
http://moritzlaw.osu.edu/lawjournal/gasaway.htm}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  (last visited 17 Apr 2005) }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  this conflict of int
erest between the expectations of the key players in the distance learning equation has persisted and the interests of the developing countries with weaker bargaining powers continue to be ignored.
\par 
\par One particular problem facing distance learning students 
is their inability to actually access many required books, journals, and other like materials. The cost of textbooks and other material has become so high in Kenya and elsewhere in the region that the sparse numbers of public libraries with meagre state f
u
nding are not able to properly provide access to books and materials. For any distance-learning programme, this absence spells disaster: the usual expectation is that correspondence students should be able to at least access books in their local public li
b
raries. And even where the student can access a local library, it is rare that public or even private libraries hold copies of relevant books or indeed hold enough copies of essential texts and materials. In the past, it appears that this was not as much 
of a problem as it is today; one book was simply duplicated for distribution to many readers. (For example as a student, one text book used for the Jurisprudence and Social Foundations of Law modules was available at the University of Nairobi\rquote 
s Faculty of L
aw Library both in the original and in the duplicated form.) However, the increased protectionism ushered in by the TRIPS Agreement means that these libraries can no longer afford to do that and thus there is a chronic shortage of books and materials for 
s
tudents. With neither access to journals nor online materials available on university campuses, this means that the distance learning student has to choose between attending lectures in order to get information or forfeiting certain subjects in which the 
needed materials are too costly; in the end, this defeats the purpose of having a distance education programme.
\par 
\par In the absence of the use of course packs, it is up to the student to supplement his/her own reading or research with whatever materials can be 
afforded. For many students, the prices of materials and books are too dear and many turn to photocopying the books at a fraction of the cost.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \fi-180\li180\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin180\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 The photocopying charge in Nairobi- Kenya for example ranges from Kshs1.50 (USD 0.02) to Kshs. 3 (USD 0.04) per A4 Sheet. (Exchange rate obtained using Universal Currency Converter at }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.xe.com/ucc/convert.cgi" }}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.xe.com/ucc/convert.cgi}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 )}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 However as international pressure mounts for the stiffer enforcement of intellectual property rules, many students will not be able to do this in the near future\'85
or do so legally. Researching for and obtaining material via the Internet is also an expensive affair as not only does it involve commuting to and from the towns that provide the service, but
 also includes the cost of using Internet facilities at cyber cafes, usually charged by the minute. This is a further hindrance to many students. 
\par 
\par Because of the significant fees and expenses incurred by students on distance learning courses, institutions
 that provide distance learning programmes are often faced with the burden of obtaining and providing teaching materials, reference books, and even access to revision papers. Most of these are obtained from western countries and is therefore a costly affa
ir. Not only do they have to make regular \lquote affiliation\rquote  payments, they must meet other criteria such as provision of library facilities, reprographic facilities, and access to \lquote relevant IT/Computers\rquote 
 in order to obtain and retain accreditation status as out
lined by the Association of Business Executives. Such criteria refuse to acknowledge the widespread poverty in many parts of the South or even the fact that a mere 8% of the rural population in many developing countries are served by electrification.}{
\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \fi-180\li180\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin180\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Daniel M. Kammen }{\i\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \lquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
Household Power in a New Light: Policy Lessons, and Questions, for Photovoltaic Technology in Africa\rquote  }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/cru/tiempo/index.htm" }}{\fldrslt {
\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Tiempo: Global Warming and the Third World}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Issue No. 20 (1996), p. 1 \endash  8 at }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  
HYPERLINK "http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael/tiempo.html" }}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://ist-socrates.berkeley.edu/~rael/tiempo.html}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 As a result, many in rural areas are denied access to even a narrow range of educational material and courses.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620 Producing }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 course packs 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par Where an institution is able to produce its own course packs, as does the Strathmore University, then the issue of copyright is no longer straightforward. Often, course packs will include articles, tables, photographs, newspaper clippings, extracts from b
ooks, music, etc. that are taken from other sources. The problem is indeed far from simple for distance learners. The \lquote fair use\rquote  exemption to copyright, as found in S.26 (1) of the }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 Kenya Copyright Act}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 , which permits only the copying of two short passages of a work, is simply derisory. In addition, this \lquote fair use\rquote 
 provision is only applicable to institutions registered under the Education Act. This effectively prevents the use of such materials in community learning centres without the payment of royalties or
 licence fees. These fees are unfortunately passed on to the locals, making it more expensive for those in rural areas where such community centres play a pivotal role in adult education and vocational training.
\par 
\par As a result, institutions are then forced t
o rely on either material already in the public domain or seek permission from the copyright holder to reproduce the work for such purposes. Such permissions can take months to process and as the duration of copyright lasts for 50 years or 70 years (or lo
nger) after the death of the author}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \fi-180\li180\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin180\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  For more on the duration of copyright, see Section 4.2. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
, many of the works in which copyright has reverted to the public domain may not be relevant in today\rquote s world. The state of science, for example, is rather different today than it was in the 1950s. 
\par 
\par One alternative is being tried, though still on a small scale. Steve Foerster of the Free Curricula Centre (FCC) states that it may be more effective in the short run to refurbish old texts and write new ones than to try and overcome what he calls \'93
the Intellectual Property lobbying juggernaut.\'94 This is the rationale behind FCC\rquote s move to attempt to write and provide free textbooks to those in the developing world.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  The group\rquote s website is }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 HYPERLINK http://www.freecurricula.org/ }{\fs20\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b3c00000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e00660072006500650063007500720072006900630075006c0061002e006f00720067002f0000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {
\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.freecurricula.org/}}}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  
\par 
\par Copyright laws also serve to hinder the assimilation of knowledge by local communities by granting monopoly rights of translation to the copyright holder.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 For more on translation and copyright, see Section 4.11 }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 Lecturers and institutions could find themselves facing law suits if they attempted to translate such works. And with over 40 tribes in Kenya alone, all with different dialects,}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 See more on Kenya\rquote s language distribution at }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.kenyalogy.com/eng/info/pobla4.html" }}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
http://www.kenyalogy.com/eng/info/pobla4.html}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 the translation costs of books can run into the millions of dollars, especially because for each dialect, a separate licence must be obtained. Thus the only book widely tran
slated remains the Bible. For this reason, education in developing countries is seen as synonymous with learning the languages of the countries of the West, for it is the only means to obtain material, both in the online and offline worlds. }{
\cf7\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par Even though l
imited, the use of online programmes for distance learning as done by the AVU also faces several copyright hurdles. Putting materials in digital formats involves using multimedia technology to develop and deliver the coursework and assessments. And this m
eans that broadcasting issues and licensing use of software also comes into play. According to Pauline Ngimwa}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Pauline Ngimwa, 'Copyright And Open Distance And E-Learning (ODeL): The AVU Experience', presented at the African Copyright Forum: An International Conference, 28th -30th November 2005 Kampala, Uganda}}}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 , initially the University tried to broker education programs from outside Africa which were to be delivered to its students. This approach, however, was soon abandoned as this mode of delivery proved
 very expensive; there was a high cost of clearance licences for such activities and broadcasting, distribution, and copying were among other restraints. This has now forced the AVU to look to their partner institutions to develop and provide their own ma
t
erials. Again, this raises the question of ownership of the content. Observers fear that private institutions, which as noted above provide most of the distance education programmes in Sub Saharan Africa, will prefer to keep ownership rights to themselves
 and make profits from that material. Again, valuable knowledge for students would be retained behind the closed gates of copyright-induced pricing. 
\par 
\par As has been illustrated above, the use of distance learning has been hampered because of the operation of 
increasingly restrictive copyright laws. As it stands, any calls to end poverty in these countries will not be fruitful if the inhabitants do not have the knowledge on how to best use the resources available to them. Copyright laws then work contrary to t
heir supposed purpose \endash  to stimulate creativity \endash  by keeping that knowledge the property of }{\insrsid15342041 a }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 select few, and causing a waste of resources in \lquote reinventing\rquote 
 the wheel. Perhaps when the necessity of encouraging distance learning is grasped by the leaders in the countries of the South, we may see a significant push towards its development.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid4936081 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\lang7177\langfe1033\langnp7177\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734288}4.
}{\b0\fs28\lang7177\langfe1033\langnp7177\insrsid12478448 4}{\b0\fs28\lang7177\langfe1033\langnp7177\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  How copyright hinders librarians in providing services to library users}{
\b0\i\fs28\lang7177\langfe1033\langnp7177\insrsid7603589\charrsid4936081 {\*\bkmkend _Toc135734288}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid7603589 
\par Copyright and intellectual property protection impinges in different ways on the practices of librarians }{\b\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid7603589 as individual professionals}{\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid7603589 , on libraries }{
\b\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid7603589 as institutions of various kinds}{\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid7603589  (public, commercial, and academic), on the professional organizations of library workers, and to some extent on \lquote 
librarianship\rquote  as an idealised amalgamation of all of the above. This is almost always in respect of patrimonial or economic rights, and usual
ly has little or nothing to do with moral rights, either in law or principle. To the extent that such protection limits or inhibits them from providing service to users, some librarians, especially in countries of the South, have begun to express a not fu
lly articulated uneasiness with the way that the copyright regime appears to favour the commercial interests of publishers over a hypothetical \lquote right to knowledge\rquote 
. In this section of the dossier we will examine the hidden assumption that library collection
s harm publishing, the idea that librarians have a moral duty to police copyright compliance among users, the impact on libraries of multiple layers of protection for digital content, and whether the librarian\rquote s first duty is to the library user.

\par }{\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 Librarie
s and Public Lending Right
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 
{\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft5160\shptop175\shpright8375\shpbottom3559\shpfhdr0\shpbxcolumn\shpbxignore\shpbypara\shpbyignore\shpwr2\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt0\shpz11\shplid1038{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 202}}{\sp{\sn fFlipH}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFlipV}{\sv 0}}
{\sp{\sn lTxid}{\sv 851968}}{\sp{\sn hspNext}{\sv 1038}}{\sp{\sn fFitShapeToText}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn shadowOpacity}{\sv 32768}}{\sp{\sn shadowOffsetX}{\sv 76200}}{\sp{\sn shadowOffsetY}{\sv 76200}}{\sp{\sn fShadow}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}
{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\shptxt \pard\plain \s3\qr \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5903513 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {
\b0\fs18\loch\af66\hich\af66\dbch\af13\insrsid8483307 \hich\af66\dbch\af13\loch\f66 \hich\f66 Knowledge is not a commodity, and can never be one. Knowledge is the distillation of human endeavour and it is the most profound collective good that there is
\'85\loch\f66 Education must embrace the intellectual, cultural, political and socia\hich\af66\dbch\af13\loch\f66 l development of individuals, institutions, and nations. This \hich\f66 \lquote \loch\f66 public good\hich\f66 \rquote \loch\f66 
 agenda should not be held hostage to the vagaries of the market.
\par \hich\af66\dbch\af13\loch\f66 Alec Erwin (former South African Minister of Trade and Industry), }{\b0\i\fs18\loch\af66\hich\af66\dbch\af13\insrsid8483307 \hich\af66\dbch\af13\loch\f66 ANC Today}{\b0\fs18\loch\af66\hich\af66\dbch\af13\insrsid8483307 
\hich\af66\dbch\af13\loch\f66 , Vol. 3, no. 41, 17-23 October 2003. }{\b0\i\fs18\loch\af66\hich\af66\dbch\af13\insrsid8483307 
\par }}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt8203\dptxbx\dptxlrtb{\dptxbxtext\pard\plain \s3\qr \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5903513 
\b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs18\loch\af66\hich\af66\dbch\af13\insrsid8483307 \hich\af66\dbch\af13\loch\f66 \hich\f66 
Knowledge is not a commodity, and can never be one. Knowledge is the distillation of human endeavour and it is the most profound collective good that there is\'85\loch\f66 Education must embrace the intellectual, cultural, political and socia
\hich\af66\dbch\af13\loch\f66 l development of individuals, institutions, and nations. This \hich\f66 \lquote \loch\f66 public good\hich\f66 \rquote \loch\f66  agenda should not be held hostage to the vagaries of the market.
\par \hich\af66\dbch\af13\loch\f66 Alec Erwin (former South African Minister of Trade and Industry), }{\b0\i\fs18\loch\af66\hich\af66\dbch\af13\insrsid8483307 \hich\af66\dbch\af13\loch\f66 ANC Today}{\b0\fs18\loch\af66\hich\af66\dbch\af13\insrsid8483307 
\hich\af66\dbch\af13\loch\f66 , Vol. 3, no. 41, 17-23 October 2003. }{\b0\i\fs18\loch\af66\hich\af66\dbch\af13\insrsid8483307 
\par }}\dpx5160\dpy175\dpxsize3215\dpysize3384\dpfillfgcr255\dpfillfgcg255\dpfillfgcb255\dpfillbgcr255\dpfillbgcg255\dpfillbgcb255\dpfillpat1\dplinew15\dplinecor0\dplinecog0\dplinecob0}}}}{\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 At least some publishers and booksellers have always believed that the \lquote free\rquote 
 availability of their books in libraries constitutes a threat to their commercial interests, and is likely to harm sales. Logically enough, those who hold this belief are willing to use copyright law and any other available mechanisms (}{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 see below}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
) to protect their perceived interests and to recover what they see as lost revenue, even if this could mean that libraries might not function as well as they would otherwise do. Two centuries ago, when the first \lquote circulating libraries\rquote 
 (the precursors of today\rquote s public libraries) were established, the London bookseller }{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 James Lackington (1746-1815) argued against this perspective, writing that:
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
When circulating libraries were first opened, the booksellers were much alarmed, and their rapid increase, added to their fears, had led them to think that the sale of books would be much diminished by such libraries. 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par However, Lackington continued, the availability of books in the circulating libraries actually had the opposite effect: 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
\par [\'85] experience has proved t
hat the sale of books, so far from being diminished by [libraries], has been greatly promoted, as from those repositories many thousand families have been cheaply supplied with books, by which the taste of reading has become much more general, and thousan
ds of books are purchased every year by such as have first borrowed them at those libraries, and after reading, approving of them, become purchasers.}{\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Quoted in S. H. Steinberg, Five hundred years of printing (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1961) p.260.}}}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 It is u
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 nclear whether Lackington\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56 
s optimistic conclusion was supported by any empirical evidence at the time, but it is certain that in the two hundred years since he wrote, publishers, booksellers and librarians have existed in uneasy symbiosis, at least as far
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
as intellectual property rights are concerned. This is primarily because their interests sometimes clash: publishers and booksellers are in the business of selling as many books as possible in order to make a profit, while librarians are in the business o
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 f\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  meeting the information needs of their users. 
\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 In fact, Lackington\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56 s \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
argument has been ignored in modern practice, most especially and specifically by the introduction in many countries of Public Lending Right (PLR), which, admittedly, is aimed at helping authors rather than vendors.}{
\cs18\b\super\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  For an excellent factual introduction to PLR, see the IFLA website at }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.ifla.org/III/clm/p1/PublicLendingRigh.htm" }}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.ifla.org/III/clm/p1/PublicLendingRigh.htm}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . }}}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  It is hard to argue against the proposition that by introducing what is effectively a low level tax\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 on the borrowing of books from libraries the state is able to redistribute some revenue to those authors whose books are actually read.}{\cs18\b\super\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 The PLR organisation in the United Kingdom actually publishes useful statistics on the popularity of various categories of books year by year. }}}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 Such a proposition appeals to most people\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56 
s sense of natural justice. Whether the author in question is a best seller like J. K. Rowling or a struggling Grub Street hack has no bearing on the issue. Naturally enough, in those ma\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 inly developed countries where writers
\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56  organisations exist, such bodies are noisily in favour of PLR \hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56  it delivers cash to members and shows that the organisation has actually achieved something concrete in their interests.
\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 The problem, however, is that \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 the }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 principle}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 underlying PLR is both muddled and also has far-reaching implications. First, the unexamined assumption is that the existence of public libraries does in fact }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 actually harm}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  book sales. The counter argument, of course, is that without public (\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
and other) libraries many published works would scarcely sell a single copy. Like the argument about music downloading through Napster, it is extraordinarily difficult to prove the first part of the case either way, since it rests on the extremely shaky s
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 u\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 pposition that a book borrowed (or a song downloaded) is equivalent in some linear way to a book not purchased (or a CD not bought).}{\cs18\b\super\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid13592785 The economist Stan Liebowitz, for example, has shifted his position on this issue. Originally very sceptical of the idea that MP3 downloads harmed the recording industry, by 2003 he was less so, writing cautiously that 
\lquote }{\lang1033\langfe1033\langnp1033\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid13592785 MP3 downloading does }{\i\lang1033\langfe1033\langnp1033\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid13592785 appear}{
\lang1033\langfe1033\langnp1033\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid13592785  to be causing harm. No other explanations that have been put forward }{\i\lang1033\langfe1033\langnp1033\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid13592785 seem to be able to explain}
{\lang1033\langfe1033\langnp1033\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid13592785  the decline in sales that have occurred since 1999. Still, }{\i\lang1033\langfe1033\langnp1033\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid13592785 it is not clear}{
\lang1033\langfe1033\langnp1033\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid13592785  that the harm will be fatal [to the industry].\rquote  See \lquote Will MP3 downloads annihilate the record industry? The evidence so far\rquote 
 (Dallas, June 2003), p.2, emphasis added. Available }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid13592785  HYPERLINK "http://www.utdallas.edu/~liebowit/intprop/records.pdf" }}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid13592785 
http://www.utdallas.edu/~liebowit/intprop/records.pdf}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid13592785 .}}}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 The second assumption underlying the PLR is t\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 hat second or third or fourth readers of a book are }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 also}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 in some way depriving an author of sales (the first borrower is presumably covered by the fact that the library did pay for the copy), and that the author must therefore be compensated. This is as sh\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
aky a proposition as the other, and for the same reasons. Virtually any copy of any book ever bought that is worth reading has been read more than once, and by different people, within a family or among friends or colleagues, or by buyers of the copy seco
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 n\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
d-hand. The suspicion is that if it were a practical proposition, some kind of tax would be introduced to cover this too, by analogy, and this suspicion is supported by experiments with formats for }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 digital}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  content that would allow access only a defined num\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
ber of times (one viewing of a DVD, two readings of a text, three hearings of a musical piece: if you want to know what rights holders would }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 like}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  to do in the print environment, look to what they }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 are}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  doing in the digital one).
\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 This matters, of course, bec\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
ause public libraries in practice support popular education in both a formal and an informal sense, and the more expensive they become to run, the more likely they are to introduce access charges or membership fees (as is already the case in Johannesburg,
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
South Africa, for instance). At the very least, books that might otherwise have been acquired are not obtained. Thus, the poorest citizens, those who are arguably most in need of library services, are excluded or are less able to satisfy their information
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 needs. 
\par 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 Do Librarians have a Moral Duty to Police Copyright?
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 {\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Many librarians worry about copyright issues mainly because they are frightened that either their institutions, or they themselves as individuals, may be held responsible for copyright infringe\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
ments by library users, by aggressive and well-funded RROs or publishers. This fear has virtually nothing to do with offences against so-called moral rights (plagiarism, forgery, unauthorised publication) and almost everything to do with offences against 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 p\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
atrimonial rights (photocopying or scanning of content beyond the limits allowed by fair use, fair dealing or local custom). Historically, it is a phenomenon of the age of reprography: before the advent of publicly available user-operated dry photocopying
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
in the mid-1970s, libraries had little to worry about. However, photocopiers were followed by computers and the Internet, and now high quality scanners link the worlds of print and digital content, so that any user smart enough to push a green button can 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 m\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 ake a complete copy of anything at all in some unsupervised corner of the library.
\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 The librarians\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56  concerns are reflected in official statements by professional associations, such as the following extract from an IFLA (International Federation of Library 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Associations) document published in August 2000: 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
\par }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 Librarians and information professionals recognise, and are committed to support the needs of their patrons to gain access to copyright works and the information and ideas they contain. They also respect t
he needs of authors and copyright owners to obtain a fair economic return on their intellectual property. Effective access is essential in achieving copyright's objectives. IFLA supports balanced copyright law that promotes the advancement of society as a
 whole by giving strong and effective protection for the interests of rights-holders as well as reasonable access in order to encourage creativity, innovation, research, education and learning.
\par }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
\par }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 IFLA supports the effective enforcement of copyright and recog
nises that libraries have a crucial role to play in controlling as well as facilitating access to the increasing number of local and remote electronic information resources. Librarians and information professionals promote respect for copyright and active
l
y defend copyright works against piracy, unfair use and unauthorised exploitation, in both the print and the digital environment. Libraries have long acknowledged that they have a role in informing and educating users about the importance of copyright law
 and in encouraging compliance}{\i\insrsid7239910 .}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7239910 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\cs18\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
The IFLA Position on Copyright in the Digital Environment (August 2000), available at }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs18\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.ifla.org/III/clm/p1/pos-dig.htm" }}{\fldrslt {
\cs18\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.ifla.org/III/clm/p1/pos-dig.htm}}}{\cs18\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  [accessed 6 February 2006].}}}{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
The second paragraph of this statement is especially interesting, since it represents a strong expression of what we might call the \hich\f56 \lquote \loch\f56 policing role\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56 
 position for librarians with regard to copyright and intellectual property rights. Libraries and librarians\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 are presented as }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 enforcers}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  and }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 controllers}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  on behalf of the vendors and publishers whose economic interests are supposedly in play, as active }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 defenders}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  of those interests, as }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 encouragers}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  of compliance. What is missing is any justification or argument as to\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 why libraries and librarians should take on such a role, especially if the law is vague or silent, and especially if the role requires them to act against the interests of their clients. This is not to suggest for a moment that librarians should become a
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 c\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 tive violators of the law, of course, and they should be well enough informed to be able to advise their users on what is permitted and what is not. 
\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 We suggest, in fact, that the librarian\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56 s first duty is to satisfy the user\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56 s information needs (not nece\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
ssarily the same as her information wants), and to do so within the law of the land. This does not imply, either directly or indirectly, }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 any}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  duty to defend the intellectual property rights of publishers or authors, who must look to their own interests in t\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
he matter. Indeed, in questions of fair use or fair dealing, it is clearly in the interests of users that librarians should advocate and \hich\f56 \lquote \loch\f56 actively defend\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56 
 as broad an interpretation of what is permitted as possible, rather than the narrower one normally f\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 a\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
voured around the world in different jurisdictions by corporate rights holders. In the scale of such affairs, the duty of \hich\f56 \lquote \loch\f56 librarianship\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56 
 is clearly, in our view, to add weight to the side of the user to attain the famed \hich\f56 \lquote \loch\f56 fair balance\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56  of copyright discou\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 r\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
se between creators and consumers of information.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 Layers of }{\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid5465620\charrsid5465620 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 p}{\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 rotection of }{
\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid5465620\charrsid5465620 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 d}{\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 igital }{
\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid5465620\charrsid5465620 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 c}{\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 ontent
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 In libraries in those less developed countrie\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
s with a modern ICT infrastructure, such as South Africa, Brazil or India, problems are increasingly arising from layers of intellectual property protection that are additional to copyright. These include the terms and conditions of the access contracts t
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 o\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\dbch\af13\insrsid7239910 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 the }{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 vend}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7239910 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 o}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 r}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7239910 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56 s}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 databases (commonly called licences), as well as technological devices in both software and hardware, and new laws that criminalise any kind of circumvention of such devices (anti-circumvention laws). This problem affects all libraries all ov
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 er the world, but the point is that it impacts }{\dbch\af13\insrsid7239910 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 on }{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
developing countries disproportionately, since they probably do not have funds available to pay extra licence fees, and may not have the capacity to negotiate better licence terms or indeed to lobby for bet\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 ter copyright laws.

\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
Access licences, like most contracts, can be assumed to mean exactly what they say, no more and no less. Thus, access to a database of newspaper articles or academic journals does not confer upon the library permission to perform the s
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
ame set of practices that would be possible with a printed set of the newspaper or the academic journal. Interlibrary loan may not be possible, for instance, and the access to the back set may disappear if the current subscription is discontinued. Indeed,
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 if the back set goes far enough back, some rules may still be imposed }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 even though the journal is in the public domain}
{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 , i.e. out of copyright. In addition, digital formats change rapidly, and long term duration remains a major concern. The extreme convenien\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
ce of digital access for authorised users in the short term is thus offset by a series of difficulties to which the solutions are as yet far from clear.
\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Technological protection and anti-circumvention law add yet another layer of protection to content and\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 make the provision of library services difficult. Each database behaves differently, requires the user to learn a different set of protocols for access, searching and downloading, and imposes a different set of rules on what behaviours are permitted or f
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 o\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
rbidden. Librarians are responding by building portals with federated searching across multiple databases, and simple URL resolvers to allow seamless downloading of full text content from searches which produce metadata result lists. Nevertheless, in some
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
academic libraries, for example, outside researchers who traditionally have been welcome to use print collections on payment of a nominal fee, are now formally excluded from access to all digital resources, mainly because it is too complicated to work out
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 who might have access to what under which conditions, from the range of licence contracts.
\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 In sum, attempts to co-opt librarians and information workers in defence of existing copyright regimes should be resisted, at the very least because such a role has\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 the potential to clash with their primary duty to their clients. Second, it is clear that copyright rules often prevent users from easily or conveniently obtaining what they want or need, in the form they want, especially in poorer countries. That said, 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 a\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
uthors in particular have a legitimate interest in protecting their patrimonial rights from exploitation by libraries as much as from exploitation by corporations. The trick, as always, is to find a way of doing things that allows for free access, while a
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 t\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 the same time allowing authors to benefit from their creative efforts. It is hard to see how the present globalising copyright regime, given current trends, could support such a happy outcome even in theory.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 How }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620\charrsid5465620 c}{\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 opyright }{\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620\charrsid5465620 m}{\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 akes }{\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620\charrsid5465620 l}{
\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 ibraries }{\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620\charrsid5465620 l}{\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 ess }{\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620\charrsid5465620 e}{\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 fficient: }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620\charrsid5465620 s}{\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 ome }{\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620\charrsid5465620 e}{\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 xamples
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid8402803 a) }{
\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7239910 A}{\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid8402803 cademic }{\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620 j}{\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid8402803 ournals
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par Most academics publish articles and books in order to enhance their reputations, persuade their colleagues that their arguments are correct, and to increase their chances of promotion or }{\insrsid7239910 of }{\insrsid7603589 obtaining a better position e
lsewhere. It is unusual for an academic to receive any direct payment or royalties for an article, and the amounts earned from the majority of academic books are negligible \endash  most are published at a loss or subsidised.
\par 
\par Traditionally, an academic publishin
g a journal article is aiming for the widest dissemination of her ideas possible, and access to the complete scientific record is widely regarded as being fundamental to scientific method. That is how the system of distributing off-prints developed, as we
ll as inter-library loan. Most academics are therefore mainly interested in so-called \lquote moral rights\rquote 
 (being identified as the author, and not having the text altered), rather than in a revenue stream. Library networks and photocopy machines are fundamental in this process. 
\par 
\par However, things are changing for the worse. Until the 1960s, academic journals were published mainly by learned societies. The takeover of academic journals by commercial publishers in the last half century has created a new and unsustai
nable model of scholarly communication. Commercial publishers charge high prices, and in the digital environment are able to do what they would like to do in the print environment, namely restrict the free transmission of information between individuals a
nd institutions unless payments are made. This has an especially severe impact on libraries in developing countries, which cannot afford to pay $8 or $10 for a single article offprint.
\par 
\par Copyright and licence rules can thus increasingly be seen as preventing \lquote learned men and women\rquote  from writing \lquote learned books\rquote , as the scientific record is privatized rather than socialised. 
\par }{\insrsid4537671 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid4537671 b) }{
\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7239910 Photocopying}{\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid4537671  and }{\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620 s}{\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid4537671 hort }{\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620 l}{\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid4537671 oan }{
\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid5465620 s}{\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid4537671 ervices
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid4537671 
\par }{\insrsid7603589 A related problem exists at undergraduate level in academic libraries in developing countries, 
where home-made course-packs are commonly assembled by local lecturers for use as textbooks in local courses. Alternatively, lecturers may place multiple copies of texts in library short loan or reserve departments for student use. In middle income develo
ping countries such as South Africa, however, institutions are coming under increasing pressure from local RRO\rquote s to sign up on \lquote blanket licences\rquote 
 for library-related photocopying activity, which are calculated at high pro rata rates and add significantly to
 the cost of higher education. Thus academic libraries end up paying fees for photocopies that, if they were made by individual students one by one, would certainly fall under the fair dealing or fair use exemptions that developed in the 1970s.
\par }{\insrsid4537671 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid4537671 c) }{
\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7239910 Libraries}{\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid4537671  and the Internet
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par The Internet is a delivery mechanism for texts and information. Some documents are prepared and posted in formats such as the widely used proprietary Adobe PDF format or the generic Postscript format, that are clearly intended 
for print-out. Others, in HTML, may be transitory for one reason or another, that is to say, there may be good reason to suppose that a particular Website may not be permanently available. 
\par 
\par However, librarians have learned caution in these matters. It may
 be unclear whether an author or publisher who posts a PDF text does in fact intend to allow a library to print it out and add a paper copy to the collections, especially when the item is also available through the conventional book trade. Even \lquote 
ripping\rquote  and storing a Website that is about to disappear may in fact be illegal. Again, such activities cannot reasonably be argued to represent lost sales in most cases, especially in the developing world.
\par }{\insrsid4537671 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid4537671 d) }{
\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7239910 Access}{\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid4537671  for the }{\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid5580252 visually impaired}{\cs18\b0\fs22\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7239910 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 For more on this topic, see also Section 4.10 }}}{\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5580252 Only five percent of }{\fs24\insrsid5580252\charrsid5580252 visually impaired}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5580252 
 people in the developing world have access to Braille materials. This can be partly explained by the fact that Braille materials are expensive, but in many jurisdictio
ns copyright legislation further increases the cost of the materials, since permission is needed to transcribe copyrighted content into the format. The rights holder may legally charge a fee, adding to the costs, and perhaps making it completely unafforda
ble. He or she may even simply refuse permission. A library \endash  even a library for the }{\insrsid5580252\charrsid5580252 visually impaired}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5580252  \endash 
 may not legally undertake such transcriptions without permission and payment. Although the United States and the United Kingdom have enacted legislation to allow copies for the }{\fs24\insrsid5580252\charrsid5580252 visually impaired}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid5580252  to be made without obtaining the permission of a rights holder, this issue remains a major problem in many countries around the world.
\par }{\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
Libraries and copyright restrictions in the South: evidence submitted by librarians 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
Here are some examples of how copyright laws impact on public and university libraries in the South. The state sector is generally much smaller and less well-funded in countries of the South than that which exists in the North and, as a result, th
e imposition of stricter copyright laws often have an even more chilling effect on the use of and access to books and other library materials. Book purchasing budgets are also comparatively more constrained than in the North and the increasingly high cost
 of books often bites even harder. (Copyright laws give publishers the ability to limit access to cheaper alternatives, such as photocopying books.) In other countries of the South, librarians sometimes act as \'93copyright cops\'94
 and, because of the precarious financial position of many such libraries, are excessively worried by potential copyright violations. 
\par }{\insrsid4537671\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid5580252 1)}{\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid4537671  }{
\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid4537671 Negotiating a better deal
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard\plain \s26\qj \li0\ri0\sa120\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
Subscriptions to e-journals often do not allow a subscriber to keep copies of the issue they have paid for; rather, it is
 the subscription itself that permits access to the archives. So when you stop your subscription, there is nothing to show for what was paid for. This creates a dependency on the provider for many years. As one librarian explains, \'93
when a library subscribe
s to a print journal and the subscription is cancelled, the publisher does not drive up to the library and take away the back issues in a big truck. This is effectively what happens when a subscription to an electronic journal expires.\'94 
\par The vendor licence
s that many universities are required to use allow the subscriber to save copies of the article; for each additional copy, you have to make a separate extra payment. If more than one copy is required, two different payments have to be made, regardless of 
whether it is for the same article. These agreements prohibit even making a photocopy of an article that one has paid for.
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
Nevertheless, libraries can work together in consortia to negotiate better prices and access terms with publishers on a national, regi
onal or sector basis. As a result, model licences have been adopted by many publishers. The organisation Electronic Information for Libraries (known eIFL.net) supports the development of library consortia in developing and transition countries to gain aff
ordable access to electronic scholarly resources and research material. eIFL.net will negotiate licences with publishers on a multi-country basis to leverage highly discounted prices, alternative business models and fair terms for access and use.
\par 
\par The point about licences is that they }{\i\insrsid7603589 can}{\insrsid7603589 
 be negotiated. But isolated libraries in developing countries may lack both the confidence and the skill to undertake this tough process. The answer is probably two-fold: statutory compulsory licences and bui}{\insrsid4537671 lding strong li
brary consortia.}{\insrsid7603589 
\par }{\insrsid4537671 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid5580252 2}{
\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid4537671 ) Colombia
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par The Colombian Nobel laureate of literature, Gabriel Garc\'eda M\'e1rquez, has written a book entitled \'93}{\i\insrsid7603589 Memorias de mis putas tristes\'94 (}{\insrsid7603589 
Memories of my sad whores). The book is published by Random House, Colombia, which is the publis
hing division of the German multinational corporation Bertelsmann. On the title page of the book, the publisher has written that all rights are reserved and that not a single part of the book can be reproduced by any means. But Random House has gone much 
further and stated that the book should not }{\insrsid7239910 be }{\insrsid7603589 
lent by any public institution, such as libraries, without the authorization of the author and without the payment of extra royalties to the copyright holder, that is, to Random House.
\par }{\insrsid4537671 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid5580252 3}{
\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid4537671 ) Uganda 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par The National Library of Uganda operates a service called the \'93Digital Book M}{\insrsid7239910 obile\'94 that attempts to make}{\insrsid7603589 
 books available in parts of rural Uganda where they are seldom found. Several years ago a visit was arranged for children attending the \lquote displaced schools\rquote  of Gulu, Uganda ; the 22 primary schools with more than 300 students are called 
\lquote displaced schools\rquote  because the children have been uprooted from their home villages as a result of civil war and relocated in Gulu. The two-day event was called \'93one of t
he rare occasions when children who in their existence share a common daily experience of uncertainty converged in one place to indulge in reading as a peaceful activity.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Charles Batambuze, \lquote 
Bringing books to the troubled north: Digital Bookmobile visits 'displaced schools' in Gulu.\rquote  }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.anywherebooks.org/gulureport.php" }}{\fldrslt {
\cs19\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.anywherebooks.org/gulureport.php}}}{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid7603589 
\par 
\par For the first time in their lives, hundreds of titles were made available for the children\rquote s use; th}{\insrsid7239910 eir teachers, who knew that }{\insrsid7603589 
most of the books were far too expensive for local schools to purchase, asked if it might be possible for some of them to be reproduced for use in the future in Gulu-area schools. (Reproduction of whole books is forbidden under copyright law, ev
en if the books are to be used for non-profit educational purposes. A report on the Gulu event says that the \'93most favourite title for children in upper primary (to take home) was \lquote Alice\rquote s Adventures in Wonderland\rquote 
 by Lewis Carroll.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
\chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid. }}}{\insrsid7603589  It continues that \'93
teachers showed very keen interest in African Writers series which unfortunately is still under copyright protection and so could not be reproduced or distributed electronically without permission.\'94 
\par }{\insrsid4537671 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid5580252 4}{
\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid4537671 ) Francophone West Africa 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par One continuing colonial \lquote relic\rquote  in the countries of \lquote French-speaking\rquote  West Africa is that they still use a \lquote droit d\rquote auteur\rquote  copyright system which privileges the so-called \lquote moral rights\rquote 
 of authors; this system significantly reduces what are called \lquote fair dealing/fair use\rquote  ex
emptions. It has been reported that photocopiers at a university library in one such country were being used for unauthorised copying and that when the university was having its annual inspection as a university, conducted by the \lquote mother university
\rquote  in the
 United States, this fact was revealed. The African university was evidently told that this had to be corrected by the time of the inspection in the following year or it might lose its accreditation. As a result, a senior university official reportedly ha
d all of the public photocopiers removed from the library. 
\par }{\insrsid4537671 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid5580252 5}{
\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid4537671 ) South Africa 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par Librarians are restricted from digitising a valuable national collection, which is rapidly deteriorating and will soon be unreadable, because individual copyright clearance is ne
cessary for the digitising of each item. Acquiring such permission is a cumbersome and time-consuming process}{\insrsid7239910  }{\insrsid7603589 \'85}{\insrsid7239910  }{\insrsid7603589 and sometime}{\insrsid7239910 s}{\insrsid7603589 
 unsuccessful. Some rights owners cannot be located or traced; some simply refuse to give their permission; some want to }{\insrsid7239910 be }{\insrsid7603589 paid high fees or lay down strict conditions on the use of the copyrighted materials.
\par }{\insrsid5570683 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid5580252 6}{
\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5570683 ) Ethiopia
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par A survey in the 1990\rquote s revealed that the library of Addis Ababa University in Ethiopia was forced to cancel its subscriptions to a total of 1,200 academic journals.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Damtew Teferra, Knowledge Creation and Dissemination in African Universities with Special Reference to ICT, in African U
niversities in the Twenty-First Century, ed. by Paul Tiyambe Zeleza and Adebayo Olukoshi, Vol. 2 ( Council for the Development of Social Science Research in Africa, 2004) }}}{\insrsid7603589 
 (The same survey found that the library at the University of Nigeria and the University of Yaounde}{\insrsid7239910 \rquote s Medical Library in}{\insrsid7603589 
 Cameroon were forced to cancel, respectively, 824 and 107 academic journals.) A 1995 study of this Ethiopian university system revealed that only 4.2 per cent of the total book titles had been published since 1985 and \'93
consequently the vast majority of books held are old and may be considered out of date.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid. pg. 392}}}{\insrsid7603589 
 One of the largest academic journal publishers, the Elsevier Group, had a turnover of \'a34,812m for the financial year ended 31 December 2004, a sum gre
ater than the combined national revenues of Mauritius, Maldives, Madagascar, Mozambique, Seychelles and Botswana.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Kaushik Goburdhun, Copyright is an economic tool that impedes the sharing and diffusion of knowledge, Unpublished LLM Essay. Kent Law School, January 2006. }}}{\insrsid7603589  
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid14305830 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid213985 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid213985 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734289}4.5 Copyright}{
\b0\fs28\lang1033\langfe1033\langnp1033\insrsid7603589\charrsid213985  laws add to other restrictions on learning in rural South Africa: an October 2005 survey from Mpumalanga{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734289}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par South Africa has nine provinces. Mpumalanga is the }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 seventh largest province and is mainly rural in nature. }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
It is located in north-east South Africa, re-organized from the south-eastern province, formerly known as the Transvaal. Its north-western border with Northern Province is largely defined by the borders of former Bantustans (\lquote independent\rquote 
 Black homelands during the Apartheid regime), namely, former Bophuthatswana, KwaNdebele, KaNgwane, Lebowa and Gazankulu. These rural regions all have a high level of poverty and unemployment. Mpumalanga shares its bor
ders with four other provinces, namely, KwaZulu-Natal, Free State, Gauteng and Northern Province.}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 Mpumalanga also has a common border with Mozambique running roughly due north from the Swaziland-Mozambique border along the watershed of the Lebombo Mountains.
\par 
\par In October 2005, the Mpumalanga Department of Education conducted a survey in some of the rural schools, literacy centres and adult basic training (ABET) centres under its jurisdiction, covering a wide area of Mpumulanga province. The questionnaire did
 not distinguish between schools, literacy or ABET centres, as they were all surveyed as \'93learning centres\'94 in rural Mpumulanga. A survey }{\insrsid7239910 of}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 the remaining schools in the region (excluding literacy and ABET centres) has also been conducted, but the results were unfortunately not available for}{\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620  the purposes of this document.}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 

\par 
\par The following results emerged from the }{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 166 }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 schools, literacy and ABET centres (hereinafter called \'93learning centres\'94) which }{\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 
responded to the questionnaire:}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  
\par 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 151 \\f "Wingdings" \\s 14}{\fldrslt\f10\fs28}}}{\b\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 

\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li0\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 All}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 the respondents indicated high levels of poverty amongst learners. Most parents or adult learners were either unemployed or farm labourers earning very low wages. Most parents were unable to pay the tuition fees, let alone pay for 
reading material or copyright fees. A large percentage of the children at the schools were orphans, who were totally dependent on aging grandparents or one-parent households, where the incomes were very low.}{\insrsid14305830\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 151 \\f "Wingdings" \\s 14}{\fldrslt\f10\fs28}}}{\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 

\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li0\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 The number 
of learners recorded in the responses totalled }{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 48}{\b\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 ,}{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 264}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 , with }{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 1}{
\b\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 ,}{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 616 }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 educators/facilitators. The teacher/learner ratio was }{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 1:29.
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid14305830\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 151 \\f "Wingdings" \\s 14}{\fldrslt\f10\fs28}}}{\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 

\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li0\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 Of the 166 learning centres, }{
\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 60 (or 36.4%}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 ) did not have electricity. }{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 45 (or}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  }{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 27.2%)}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  of the learning centres had no running water. 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 151 \\f "Wingdings" \\s 14}{\fldrslt\f10\fs28}}}{\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 

\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li0\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 9}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 learning centres had no classrooms and had to make use of other available buildings. 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 151 \\f "Wingdings" \\s 14}{\fldrslt\f10\fs28}}}{\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 

\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li0\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 155 }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
of the learning centres received free basic textbooks from the Department of Education, whilst the remaining }{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 11 }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 learning centres}{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  }{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 were either subsidized or had to pay for textbooks from their own budgets. The majority of learning centres reported a shortage of textbooks or non-delivery of textbooks from the Department of Education. 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 151 \\f "Wingdings" \\s 14}{\fldrslt\f10\fs28}}}{\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 

\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li0\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 60 }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
learning centres could not make photocopies at all, since they had no electricity. Many of }{\insrsid7239910 them said that }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
if electricity and photocopiers were available to them, their teaching programmes would be enhanced. 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 151 \\f "Wingdings" \\s 14}{\fldrslt\f10\fs28}}}{\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 

\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li0\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 The majority}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 of learning centres said that photocopies were necessary or would be very helpful to educators and learners, since basic textbooks needed to be supplemented with other information. Some of the problems th}{\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 
ey encountered were as follows:}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s37 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 a)\tab}}\pard\plain \s37\qj \fi-360\li360\ri720\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx0\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls47\adjustright\rin720\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 Textbooks for the learners did not always arrive in time, or at all;

\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s37 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 b)\tab}Insufficient numbers of textbooks were distribut
ed amongst learners, so many did not have the required reading material to do their studies;
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s37 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 c)\tab}
Reading material often had to be shared. This was problematic when learners had to do individual tasks. Teachers were prevented from setting assignments or preparing lessons or activities from books which were limited in numbers;
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s37 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 d)\tab}
The high price of books and other reading material was beyond the means of parents and adult basic learners, who were mostly unemployed or earned very low wages as farm labourers;
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s37 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 e)\tab}
Additional reading materials, such as newspapers and magazines, were necessary for projects and to supplement information in the textbooks, but were unaffordable. Learners needed to access maps, photographs, drawings, etc. in resources, other than in pres
cribed textbooks. If photocopies of diagrams, pictures, etc. were not permitted, learners had to hand-draw them;
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s37 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 f)\tab}
Libraries were either too far away from the learning centres; alternatively, they were under-stocked and lacked adequate resources;
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s37 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 g)\tab}The ma
jority of respondents stated that photocopies were necessary for effective teaching, but that copyright laws restricted them from distributing relevant material to learners.
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s37 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 h)\tab}Performance levels were being affected by inadequate reading resources and lack
 of access to relevant information;
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s37 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 i)\tab}
Learners could not participate or learn properly, if they were limited in their choice of learning materials. 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 151 \\f "Wingdings" \\s 14}{\fldrslt\f10\fs28}}}{\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 

\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li0\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 Many}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 learning centres said that obtaining copyright clearance was tedious and unaffordable. Some recommended standardized clearance procedures via the Department of Education. One learning centre stated that if educators had to keep to the copyright law, thei
r teaching/learning aids would be very restricted. 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 151 \\f "Wingdings" \\s 14}{\fldrslt\f10\fs28}}}{\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 

\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li0\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 22}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 of the learning centres were not sure how copyright laws impacted on their lives, as they either did not have electricity or were not allowed to photocopy at all. So
me claimed that they feared prosecution under the Copyright Act if they photocopied material. Most respondents indicated that copyright laws were a problem in that they affected access to information. Some requested that special provisions (or exemptions)
 be included in the copyright law for poor schools, literacy centres and adult basic training centres. Many felt that the current copyright laws hindered teaching and prevented educators from providing up-to-date, relevant information
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 151 \\f "Wingdings" \\s 14}{\fldrslt\f10\fs28}}}{\b\fs28\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 

\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li0\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 Although }{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 99}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 of the learning centres said that they discussed copyright with learners, few seemed to have a clear understanding of what copyright was and its impact on teaching and learning. Some seemed to understand the concept of plagiarism
 and some recognised that authors needed to receive money for their books. However, very few of the learning centres seemed to be aware of the exemptions permitted for educational purposes under Section 13 Regulations of the South African Copyright Act No
.
 98 of 1978 (as amended). Although these exemptions are inadequate in the context of a developing country, they do allow limited multiple copying for teaching purposes in a classroom situation; such exemptions do not, however, cover distance learning or i
nformal teaching}{\insrsid13719662\charrsid5465620 .}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s17\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734290}
4.6 Copyright gets in the way when teachers want to provide student course & study packs{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734290}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid3630392 
\par }{\insrsid7603589 In South Africa, as in many other countries in the South, academic libraries which service universities have serious budge
tary restraints. As a result, the development of their collections is severely hampered by a lack of adequate funds, high exchange rates for foreign works, a 14% Value Added Tax on books and learning materials, high prices of printed and electronic public
a
tions, and databases. With student numbers increasing, the demand for material held by libraries is also increasing, sometimes many times over, and libraries are simply not able to provide enough of a range of materials, let alone enough copies of needed 
m
aterials, for their students, researchers and other patrons. In many academic disciplines, e.g. law, psychology, international relations, political studies, business administration, more than 1,000 students may be taking the same course and their legitima
te requirements are far beyond the capacities of even the largest and richest libraries in the South. 
\par 
\par Faced with this crisis, most universities in South Africa (as in some other countries in the South) have attempted for some years to provide relatively-c
heap course packs (or study packs) of photocopied materials to their students. (Additionally, some universities place photocopied extracts from books and journals on reserve or on short loan shelves within their libraries to enable students to copy from t
hem.) And here is where the restrictions of copyright law come into play. 
\par }{\insrsid13719662 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
{\*\bkmkstart _Toc109392514}The use of transactional licences to \lquote clear\rquote  copyright 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 {\*\bkmkend _Toc109392514}
\par To produce a course pack, universities in South Africa are required to seek the permission of publishers, who usually own the copyright, or from authors in the case of unpublished material, out of print books or matters relating to moral rights.}{
\insrsid6751219\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 (Copyright law does not provide exemptions for non-profit educational uses.) And obtaining permission is a tedious and time-consuming process; in fact, publishers don\rquote 
t really like the concept of course packs, they consider them unfair competition, and would much pr
efer that students each purchased their own individual copies of the original books. In most parts of the world, especially in the South, this is a financial impossibility. 
\par 
\par For tertiary institutions, the majority of works may be cleared by the South African reprographic rights organisation}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 For more on RROs, see Section 2.}{\insrsid8483307 4}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 , DALRO, which has mandates from the majority of South African publishers a
nd those represented by rights organizations in countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe, Australia, and some other countries. Most of the licensing fees collected by DALRO in South Africa are then paid to either foreign publishers 
or to foreign authors.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  For DALRO\rquote s financial details, see Section 2.5. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 DALRO, however, does not have a comprehensive repertoire and there are many excluded works and publishers; in such cases, permission has to be obtained directly from the rights holders. 
\par 
\par For \lquote copyright clearers\rquote 
, as they are called, tracing rights holders is a real headache. Many rights holders are no longer in business, have moved elsewhere, have become defunct or have merged with other organizations. Some publishers have published 
works which incorporates material from other published works and so permission has to be obtained from the former publishers who are not always traceable. Some publishers do not respond, some insist on high copyright royalties and restrictive conditions o
f use. Some publishers deny permission and do not give reasons either. 
\par 
\par }{\lang1024\langfe1024\noproof\langfenp2052\insrsid13913595 {\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft4800\shptop2587\shpright8280\shpbottom6010\shpfhdr0\shpbxcolumn\shpbxignore\shpbypara\shpbyignore\shpwr4\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz13\shplid1039
{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 202}}{\sp{\sn fFlipH}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFlipV}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn lTxid}{\sv 917504}}{\sp{\sn hspNext}{\sv 1039}}{\sp{\sn fRecolorFillAsPicture}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fUseShapeAnchor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn shadowOpacity}{\sv 32768}}
{\sp{\sn shadowOffsetX}{\sv 76200}}{\sp{\sn shadowOffsetY}{\sv 76200}}{\sp{\sn fShadow}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn f3D}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn pWrapPolygonVertices}{\sv 8;7;(-93,-95);(-93,21600);(559,22263);(22345,22263);(22345,758);(21693,-95)
;(-93,-95)}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\shptxt \pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11561134 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid11561134 \'93Woe is the life of the modern day student living in \'93Darkest Africa\'94
 for obviously we are still being kept in the slave quarters of the world. Harsh words? My friends try and live in a society where such Acts as the Intellectual Property Acts of the world [impede] your advancement in life.\'94 
\par }{\i\f66\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid11561134 
\par Louise Szente (Durban, South Africa) Misers or Sharers? WIPOUT Contest Essay, 23 September 2001
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt13\dptxbx\dptxlrtb{\dptxbxtext\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid11561134 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid11561134 \'93Woe is the life of the modern day student living in \'93Darkest Africa\'94 for obviously we are still being kept in the slave quarters of the world. Harsh words? My friends try and live in 
a society where such Acts as the Intellectual Property Acts of the world [impede] your advancement in life.\'94 
\par }{\i\f66\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid11561134 
\par Louise Szente (Durban, South Africa) Misers or Sharers? WIPOUT Contest Essay, 23 September 2001
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}\dpx4800\dpy2587\dpxsize3480\dpysize3423\dpfillfgcr255\dpfillfgcg255\dpfillfgcb255\dpfillbgcr255\dpfillbgcg255\dpfillbgcb255\dpfillpat1\dplinew15\dplinecor0\dplinecog0\dplinecob0}}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
All this takes a great deal of time and human effort; it involves what economists call high \'93transaction costs.\'94
 Permission has to be obtained prior to reproduction and, given the delays, use of the material very often has to be abandoned or postponed until permission has been received. Or alternativ
ely, the permission often arrives long after the material was needed and alternative or less relevant material has to be used as a substitute. In short, much wasteful labour is expended.}{\insrsid6751219\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
In addition, copyright fees are expensive and are calculated on a \lquote per-copied page basis\rquote . This takes up a large part of a university\rquote 
s expenditure budget. There are some local publishers who are willing to grant permission at a lower rate than DALRO or waive fees altogether if the material is for non-commercial, educational purposes.}{\insrsid14305830\charrsid5465620 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par In the case of disabled students, the problems are exacerbated, as permission first has to be obtained to make the photocopies for the course pack. Thereafter, permission has to be obtained to enable them to convert the material into a more ac
cessible format, e.g. Braille, audiotape, or to modify or convert material into a more visual format for deaf persons, etc.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 For more on copyright and the visually impaired, see Section 4.10}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  The technical conversion and manpower costs to do this can be v
ery expensive. In most institutions in South Africa, this cost is borne by the institution rather than the student personally, but some publishers insist on direct payment from students before conversions can be undertaken. 
\par 
\par When articles in an electronic
 (digital) format need to be used for the purpose of inclusion in printed course packs, usage and reproduction will be determined by the conditions of the licence and not by copyright law. If multiple reproductions are not permitted in the licence, it is 
not possible to include that material in a course pack, without permission. However, the South African Site Licensing Initiative (SASLI) has}{\insrsid11561134\charrsid5465620  }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
negotiated various electronic licences for universities, which include provisions to make electronic course packs an
d printed course packs. But in the case of printed course packs, the reproductions cannot be made by downloading one copy and photocopying the rest. (If done this way, copyright clearance would be necessary.) The licences require that the copies be made o
n the online system, so that the hits can be recorded by digital rights management systems.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 For more on digital rights management systems, see Section 4.8 }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  
\par 
\par At the moment, DALRO only provides a licensing system for photocopies for the tertiary institutions. DALRO and the Publishers\rquote 
 Association of South Africa (PASA) have been discussing Blanket Licensing for schools in South Africa for some time, but the publishers are not in favour of a Blanket Licence scheme for schools. DALRO therefore does not clear
 copyright for schools at all. Schools wanting to compile course packs or study packs would have to apply directly to rights holders. If they require material from foreign publications, they would have to apply overseas and pay in foreign currencies which
 again creates high transaction costs. As schools do not have the infrastructure, budgets or human capacity to apply for copyright clearance on a transactional basis, many do not clear copyright at all.{\*\bkmkstart _Toc109392515}
 This is hardly surprising.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid9309490 Using \lquote }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 blanket licences}{\f1\fs24\insrsid9309490 {\*\bkmkend _Toc109392515}\rquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  to clear copyright 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par Some higher }{\insrsid7239910 education }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 institutions have entered into a so-called \'93Blanket Licence\'94
 with the rights organization, which streamlines administrative and accounting procedures for the institutions concerned. The Blanket Licence currently offered by the rights organization in South Africa, i.e. DALRO, is expensive and does not include vario
us works, such as newspapers, online works and excluded works and publishers, which have not given their mandates to DALRO. The list of excluded works in South Africa is minimal but there are many excluded works and publishers abroad.}{
\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 These can be found on http://}{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.wits.ac.za/library/services/copyright" }{\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000002a0000007700770077002e0077006900740073002e00610063002e007a0061002f006c006900620072006100720079002f00730065007200760069006300650073002f0063006f0070007900720069006700680074000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004b
a90b6200000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0077006900740073002e00610063002e007a0061002f006c006900620072006100720079002f00730065007200760069006300650073002f0063006f007000790072006900670068007400000000000000006c0000000000}}}{\fldrslt {
\cs19\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 www.wits.ac.za/library/services/copyright}}}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  So to call it a \'93blanket licence\'94 is a misnomer}{\insrsid7239910 .}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par 
\par The Blanket Licence is only offered to tertiary institutions and not 
to elementary and secondary schools, where it would, in fact, be more beneficial. Many tertiary institutions still obtain transactional licences, which in relation to Blanket Licence per-page costs are more expensive, but this is determined on their usage
 
of photocopied materials and the number of full-time equivalent students (FTEs). The Blanket Licence is calculated using a flat rate based on 200 pages per student, multiplied by the number of FTE students (except doctoral students), plus the Consumer Pri
c
e Index percentage plus Value-Added Tax (VAT) of 14%. The Blanket Licence only covers photocopied material and transient electronic copies and has specific conditions on what portion of a work one can use. For instance, it permits the reproduction of one 
c
hapter of a book or 10% of a book (whichever is the greater), one article from a journal, and one case study or law report. Any portions required in excess of these amounts plus electronic material would be excluded from the licence and transactional lice
nces would be necessary. Excluded works would also have to be cleared via transactional licences. 
\par 
\par Some institutions offer short certificate courses within their Faculties and provide course packs to students. Some of these courses attract FTE subsidies an
d form part of the DALRO Blanket Licence. However, many of the courses do not attract FTE subsidies and are excluded from the Blanket Licence. This means that institutions have to budget separately for these specific short courses and have to apply for cl
earance on a transactional basis. 
\par 
\par Unfortunately, DALRO focuses its attention on the government-subsidized tertiary institutions and does not make much effort in getting the private institutions or corporate organizations on board as far as copyright clear
ances are concerned. There is wholesale infringement going on in private institutions and large corporations but nothing is done about it, yet the government-financed tertiary sector is constantly monitored and warned about possible litigation if they do 
not comply with the copyright law. Schools that do want to comply }{\insrsid7239910 lack}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  the infrastructure or resources to take part do so and so DALRO does not extend its services to them. 
\par 
\par The above description is the general practice in South Africa. There are very few 
rights organizations in other African countries. At last count, there were eight others, most of which are hardly functioning at all. Most countries have far more pressing socio-economic issues to address than copyright issues and compliance levels vary f
r
om country to country. They do not have the resources, infrastructure, and human capacity to become copyright compliant, so what is the purpose of setting up an RRO when it is set up for failure right at the start and when it would simply impose the numer
ous restrictions and costs that are already faced in South Africa, the richest country in Africa. }{\insrsid14305830\charrsid5465620 
\par }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734291}
4.7 An academic from Colombia tries hard to do his research \'85}{\b0\fs28\insrsid11561134\charrsid5465620  }{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 with great difficulty{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734291} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 We know an academic economist working at a un
iversity in Colombia who constantly comes up against serious obstacles if he needs to find a book to use for his research. The under-funded library at his university in Bogot\'e1
 has gaping holes in its collection; it does not hold, for example, many standard books tha}{\insrsid7239910 t would be available at even a second (or third) tier}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 university library located in North America or Europe. And so if a required book is not available locally, his only alternative is to ask his university library to obtain the needed book on a 
short-term loan from another library located outside Colombia; such a service is called \'93inter-library loan\'94 in some countries (or \'93document delivery\'94 in others.) 
\par 
\par But th}{\insrsid7239910 is}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620  University\rquote s library copyright clearance office has concluded that only one chapte
r can be used from any one copy of the required book found in a foreign library; this is how his University library interprets the so-called \'93fair use/fair dealing\'94
 provisions of copyright law. So the book he needs cannot be sent solely from another librar
y or scanned by computer from a single copy located in a foreign library. Instead, if there are, for example, 15 chapters in the required book, the 15 chapters must be obtained by photocopying or scanning from 15 different original copies located in 15 di
fferent foreign libraries. 
\par 
\par Not surprisingly, the individual chapters take a long time to arrive in Bogot\'e1 and the total cost of a 15-chapter book is US$150.00 (US$10.00 per chapter). Such costs come out of the research budget of the academic which seldom 
match those available at an American or European university. Moreover, because you cannot actually look over the book (or even its table of contents) BEFORE you order it and pay US$150.00; the actual book may not be very useful for your research when it f
inally arrives. And it does not matter if the}{\insrsid11561134\charrsid5465620  required book is out-of-print \'85}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
 and hence cannot be purchased even if you had sufficient funds. Copyright restrictions apply to many out-of-print books. 
\par 
\par Under these highly restrictive working conditions for re
searchers, directly attributable to domestic and international copyright law, academics from the South often find it very difficult to get much research and writing done. Or, if they do, they do so with great fortitude.}{\insrsid14305830\charrsid5465620 

\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid5465620 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734292}
4.8 Using the Internet in the South: a tangled web of copyright toll-gates and \'93keep out\'94 messages{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734292}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\f1\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 Introduction 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par It must first be recognized that there is nothing close to universal access to the Internet throughout the global South. A recent study conducted by the World Science Project found that lack of Internet access }{\insrsid7239910 by}{\insrsid7603589 
 African scholars was an important barrier to scholarly productivity. While computers and bandwidth do exist on University campuses in Africa, there are not enough resources to make a positive impact.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Gisele Dodji Dovi, \lquote More Internet Access Needed for Science to go Global,\rquote  Science and Development Network, November 25, 2005. Available at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.scidev.net/News/index.cfm?fuseaction=readNews&itemid=2502&language=1" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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6500610064004e0065007700730026006900740065006d00690064003d00320035003000320026006c0061006e00670075006100670065003d0031000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90ba000000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e007300630069006400650076002e006e00650074002f004e
006500770073002f0069006e006400650078002e00630066006d003f00660075007300650061006300740069006f006e003d0072006500610064004e0065007700730026006900740065006d00690064003d00320035003000320026006c0061006e00670075006100670065003d00310000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {
\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.scidev.net/News/index.cfm?fuseaction=readNews&itemid=2502&language=1}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . }}}{\insrsid7603589  Increasing bandwidth and access t
o electronic communication is crucial to further development in African }{\insrsid7239910 u}{\insrsid7603589 niversities.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Steve Song, 
\lquote Viewpoint: Bandwidth Can Bring African Universities up to Speed,\rquote  IRDC Reports available at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.idrc.ca/es/ev-84498-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html" }{
\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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6c000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b6600000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0069006400720063002e00630061002f00650073002f00650076002d00380034003400390038002d003200300031002d0031002d0044004f005f0054004f005000490043002e00680074006d006c00000000
00000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.idrc.ca/es/ev-84498-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . }}}{\insrsid7603589  
\par 
\par It is easy to assume from a Western standpoint that the global information society has become ubiquitous, but the vast majority of the world\rquote s population continues to have little to no access to 
the Internet. Thus, for many people living in the global South, the types of copyright barriers that make access to knowledge difficult on the Internet are not relevant because access to the Internet is simply not an option. For example, for students in K
enya, th}{\insrsid7239910 e}{\insrsid7603589  issue is not access to the Internet, but instead access to textbooks, which are in short supply. 
\par 
\par However, even given the limited access to Internet service throughout the global South, those who do manage to gain computer time to surf the web fi
nd that increasingly roadblocks are put up to prohibit access to documents, papers, and information. In this section, we will give a brief outline of the negative impacts of several types of barriers to Internet access.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
The dangers of Digital Rights Management (DRM)
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par Digital Rights Management (DRM) developed in response to wide-spread concern on the part of content providers regarding what they call massive \lquote piracy\rquote 
 on the Internet. The primary actors on DRM have been the entertainment and computer softwar
e industries, both of which seek to limit access to movies, music, and proprietary software. They want to hinder access to these products using a protective layer of computer code that limits the possible uses of a product. DRM is as much a problem for th
e overdeveloped world as it is for the global South, but when already problematic access is combined with barriers to access the problem is exacerbated for the global South.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  \lquote 
France about to get the worst copyright law in Europe,\rquote  December 2, 2005. Available at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.boingboing.net/2005/12/02/france_about_to_get_.html" }{
\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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5f0074006f005f006700650074005f002e00680074006d006c000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b7e00000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0062006f0069006e00670062006f0069006e0067002e006e00650074002f0032003000300035002f00310032002f00300032002f006600720061
006e00630065005f00610062006f00750074005f0074006f005f006700650074005f002e00680074006d006c0000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.boingboing.net/2005/12/02/france_about_to_get_.html}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  
\par 
\par A recent controversy regarding Sony music\rquote s DRM system highlights some of the ongoing problems with DRM. Sony BMG Music Entertainment attached a hidden DRM program to the CDs it was selling that, it turned out, opened up a siz}{\insrsid7239910 e}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 able security hole when used on a computer.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\cs160\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Paul Taylor and Aline van Duyn, \lquote 
Music Industry Asks Whether Fair Use is Fair Play,\rquote  FT.Com., November 28, 2005. Available at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs160\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://news.ft.com/cms/s/2594a9f8-603a-11da-a3a6-0000779e2340.html" }{
\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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3000300030003000370037003900650032003300340030002e00680074006d006c000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b8600000068007400740070003a002f002f006e006500770073002e00660074002e0063006f006d002f0063006d0073002f0073002f00320035003900340061003900660038002d00360030
00330061002d0031003100640061002d0061003300610036002d003000300030003000370037003900650032003300340030002e00680074006d006c0000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://news.ft.com/cms/s/2594a9f8-603a-11da-a3a6-0000779e2340.html}
}}{\cs160\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  After the security problem was announced, Sony had to issue a public apology and recall the CDs. Despite this setback and the potential damage that could be caused to user
\rquote s computers, companies like Sony continue to seek methods for forcing DRM on the consuming public. 
\par 
\par As a recent report by the Electronic Frontier Foundation notes, the application of DRM in the developed world has been relatively unsuccessful and is marked by attempts to censor research and consumer revolt against the system.}{
\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Electronic Frontier Foundation, \lquote Digital Rights Management: A Failure in the Developed World, A Danger to the Developing World,\rquote 
 For the International Telecommunications Union, ITU-R Working Party 6M Report on Content Protection Technologies, }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.eff.org/IP/DRM/itu_drm.php" }{
\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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7400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e006500660066002e006f00720067002f00490050002f00440052004d002f006900740075005f00640072006d002e0070006800700000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.eff.org/IP/DRM/itu_drm.php}}}{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  They go on to suggest that DRM in the global South will be problematic for the following reasons:
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 a)\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\sb100\sa100\sbauto1\saauto1\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx0\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls48\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 DRM systems overru}{\insrsid13848513 le local copyright limitations;}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 b)\tab}DRM systems often assume infrastructure that isn't present in the dev}{\insrsid13848513 eloping world;}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 c)\tab}
DRM systems make rich-country assumptions about family and domestic life that are inappropriate to many developing countries.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid.}}}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513  
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 DRM in the developing world context can create a sit
uation where technical considerations will take precedent over domestic considerations and development priorities.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid.}}}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513  Unfortunately, if a country is a member of WIPO, which most in the global South are, they may have to sign on to anti-circumvention laws in order to ensure the level of protection granted by international treaty.}{
\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid.}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
\par 
\par The EFF recommends that developing country governments avoid using DRM because it is an inherently flawed system that can only function in the presence of strict ant
i-circumvention laws. Furthermore, DRMs are harmful to access to knowledge through libraries and for disabled persons and can eliminate the possibility of using Free and Open Software.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Ibid.}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513  
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 Other }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid9309490\charrsid9309490 m}{\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 echanisms for }{\f1\fs24\insrsid9309490\charrsid9309490 l}{\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 imiting }{\f1\fs24\insrsid9309490\charrsid9309490 a}{
\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 ccess on the Internet
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par DRMs are not the only mechanism used to limited access on-line. Large numbers of content-heavy websites come with password protection or toll gates to information. These barriers are most prevalent in scientific journals, library databases, and educationa
l materials. In other words, the very knowledge many in the global South may require access to in order to continue innovation and development is only available for a price. 
\par 
\par For example, the Google Scholar web searching tool that is designed to access mat
erials on the Internet, which are published in scholarly spaces, often runs up against roadblocks in providing material. Instead of access to the text, one is given access to a place to purchase the article, often at a cost more expensive than the origina
l journal. Thus, in an effort to harness even more profits, many scholarly journals continue to increase their prices and impose toll-gates on internet access to their materials. 
\par 
\par An example of a barrier to access is the following search \endash  \'93Problems with DRM\'94 in Google Scholar. One of the top hits is an article by E.W. Felten titled \'93A Sceptical View of DRM and Fair Use,\'94 in }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
Communications of the ACM.}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  However, to access this article, one must have a membership in the appropriate organization or access to th
e appropriate library database. Thus, the ultimate benefit of Google Scholar is mitigated by the lack of access in the search. Of the materials that would be searchable, few are available for the public to read without some conditions placed upon access.

\par 
\par Of course a members-only organisation may make the argument that access to their publications are a benefit of membership only and seek to exclude access to others generally. While those in the global South have sought broader access to knowledge for gene
r
ations, those who see knowledge as a for-profit commodity have always considered that knowledge comes at a price. We discuss the development of the open access movement in later sections of this dossier, but this movement holds up the promise of future kn
owledge sharing.
\par 
\par Even with the appropriate licences, fees, and memberships, the presence of DRM, toll-gates and passwords ensures that content remains centralized. These mechanisms have implications for the concept of \lquote fair use\rquote .}{
\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  See Glossary. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
 When one is prohibited from access it is unclear if any fair uses are left. As one member of the Copy/South group pointed out, libraries can only access on-line archival materials with a subscription. If the subscription is ended then the library loses n
o
t only access to current and future volumes, but to those it has paid for in the past. Paying a fee no longer ensures continued access to a copy. Furthermore, for United States journals and materials, access is dependent upon U.S. Foreign Policy. Access t
o
 educational and scholarly materials for those in Cuba has always been stifled by the US. Syria and Iran face similar embargoes on information from U.S. sources. Additionally, if political conditions in a country were to change so would the access to prev
iously paid for documents. 
\par 
\par Of course, downloading and copying back issues of all electronic journals is one solution to the problems of continued access. However, under many agreements, such copying may violate copyright law. For example, library licences
 in some countries do not allow for the copying of articles and researchers must pay for each individual access. 
\par 
\par There are efforts to open the Internet up. For example, at the recent Internet conference in Tunis, the creation of \'93The Development Gateway\'94 funding by the William and Flora Hewlett Foundation was announced.}{
\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  John Blau, \lquote Open Content Opens Doors to Opportunity,\rquote  Infoworld, November 22, 2005. }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.infoworld.com/article/05/11/22/Hnopencontent_1.html?source=NCL-TB2005-11-22" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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6f006e00740065006e0074005f0031002e00680074006d006c003f0073006f0075007200630065003d004e0043004c002d005400420032003000300035002d00310031002d00320032000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90bae00000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0069006e0066006f0077
006f0072006c0064002e0063006f006d002f00610072007400690063006c0065002f00300035002f00310031002f00320032002f0048006e006f00700065006e0063006f006e00740065006e0074005f0031002e00680074006d006c003f0073006f0075007200630065003d004e0043004c002d0054004200320030003000
35002d00310031002d003200320000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.infoworld.com/article/05/11/22/Hnopencontent_1.html?source=NCL-TB2005-11-22}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
. For more on the Development Gateway see: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.developmentgateway.org" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000002200000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0064006500760065006c006f0070006d0065006e00740067006100740065007700610079002e006f00720067000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b4600000068007400740070003a00
2f002f007700770077002e0064006500760065006c006f0070006d0065006e00740067006100740065007700610079002e006f00720067002f0000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.developmentgateway.org}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . }
}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  The Hewlett Foundation has also funded the Creative Commons licensing scheme and the MIT OpenCourseWare project.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid. }}}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par 
\par In Africa, }{\insrsid7239910 u}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 niversities are beginning to form collective organizations to bargain for better prices }{\insrsid7239910 for}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
 Internet access. Africa is beginning to develop National Research and Education Networks (NRENs) to bring costs down and increase access.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Song, op. cit. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  Steven Song hopes that providing better access to communications technology may also halt the brain drain as scholars seek better resources elsewhere.}{\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid.}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par 
\par Seeki
ng to overcome the barriers to access that exist on the Internet is the subject of other sections of the dossier. However, it is important to note that the problems with barriers to access are not inherent and that with planning they can be overcome as an
 alternative model for information sharing is developed and shared via the Internet.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc109392506}{\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734293}
4.9 Using intellectual property laws to prop up proprietary computer software{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734293} 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid11561134 
\par }{\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 Three legal regimes {\*\bkmkend _Toc109392506}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
\par Although computer software in its earliest days in the 1960s and 1970s (and, in various ways, its most innovative days) was }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 not}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
 protected by intellectual property laws, three IP regimes have more recently been employed in some, though not all, countries: p
atent law, trade secret law, and copyright law. Within the ever-growing ranks of the free and open source software movement (FLOSS), it is now the accepted wisdom that the patenting of software is a type of legal protection that should be opposed and, whe
r
e it exists, should be rolled back and not permitted again. There are good reasons for this conclusion: the patenting of elementary programming sequences creates innumerable and often expensive barriers which are difficult to circumvent for those who want
 to write new software, including free software. Many leading figures in the FLOSS movement, such as Richard Stallman and Bruce Perens of the United States, have written at length }{\insrsid7239910 about }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
how software patents block free software development. Perens concludes, \'93today, they are a nuisance; tomorrow they could be much more\'94}{\cs18\cf1\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 See, for example, Bruce Perens, \lquote Software Patents v. Free Software.\rquote  }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://perens.com/Articles/Patents.html" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000002800000068007400740070003a002f002f0070006500720065006e0073002e0063006f006d002f00410072007400690063006c00650073002f0050006100740065006e00740073002e00680074006d006c000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b5000
000068007400740070003a002f002f0070006500720065006e0073002e0063006f006d002f00410072007400690063006c00650073002f0050006100740065006e00740073002e00680074006d006c0000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
http://perens.com/Articles/Patents.html}}}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513  and Stallman is much more scathing.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 See, for example, Richard }{\cs159\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Stallman, \lquote  Software patents victimise developers\rquote , ZDNet UK, 28 March 2002, h}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
ttp://news.zdnet.co.uk/software/developer/0,39020387,2107481,00.htm}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513  In Europe, a strong campaign against software patents is being waged}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 http://swpat.ffii.org/intro/index.en.html}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513  and elsewhere, the dangers of such a policy choice are also starting to be appreciated. 
\par }{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid13848513 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 Other commentators have explained how trade secret laws create barriers to innovation, particularly as such laws reinforc
e the ability of proprietary multi-nationals such as Microsoft to keep secret the all-important source and object codes found in software, as well as other features. Cunliff explains the scope of trade secrets: 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid13848513 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\cs27\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Rather than focusing solely on expression [\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
required for copyright protection] or demanding novelty as a prerequisite to protection [ required, at least in theory, to obtain a patent] , the law of trade secrets will protect the ideas underlying particular software \hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56 
 including the software's structu\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 r\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 e or architecture and organization, and various features, routines and processes within the software, novel or not \hich\f56 \endash \loch\f56 
 so long as those ideas are not generally known (or readily ascertainable from the marketed software) and give, or have the potential to gi\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 v\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
e, a competitive advantage by virtue of the fact that others do not know them.}{\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  V.A. Cundiff, \lquote Protecting Computer Software as a Trade Secret\rquote 
, 507 Practicing Law Institute (Patents, Copyrights, Trademarks and Literary Property Course Handbook Series) 761, 1998. }}}{\cs27\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs27\i\fs19\loch\af40\hich\af40\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
\par }{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 But as to the question of whether software should be protected by copyright laws, there is virtual silence; it has essentially and m
istakenly become a non-issue for the FLOSS movement and many others. This disinclination\emdash indeed often refusal\emdash 
to appreciate and critique the negative impact of granting copyright to software is a relatively new development. When the protection of software 
by copyright laws was first initiated, chiefly as a result of the 1978 US CONTU report, progressive legal commentators and many people active in the development of software challenged this legal development as highly retrogressive. Such voices are now sti
lled. And, to be clear, this is a global issue, not one for the United States alone. The fact that both }{\cf1\insrsid7239910 the }{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
1994 TRIPS Agreement (Art. 10 (1)) and the 1996 WIPO Copyright Treaty (Art.5) state that computer programs, both in source and object code, must be protected by copyright has further raised the global stakes, including for the South. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
Copyright in software 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
\par Why this disinclination to challenge and criticise the granting of copyright in software? After the US adopted software copyright in the 1980\rquote s, }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
large multinational software companies spent extensive time and resources lobbying for the creation of similar standards and approaches in international copyright agreements. Their efforts also extended to countries of the South. Peter Menell, writing in 
1994, noted that \lquote 
[T]he United States government devoted substantial effort over the past decade to browbeating most of the developed world into following its path. Neither the US government nor the many entities desiring uniform protection for their produc
ts across national borders are interested in starting a new fight.\rquote }{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Peter Menell, \lquote 
The Challenges of Reforming Intellectual Property Protection for Computer Software\rquote , 94 Columbia Law Review 2644, 2653 (December 1994) }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513  
\par 
\par At the same t}{\insrsid7239910 ime, some sectors of the highly }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 positive FLOSS movement that came into existence in the 1980s embraced the notion of \lquote copyleft\rquote 
. This approach takes the basic copyright notions of creating property rights in expressions \endash  in this case, in software code \endash  and awarding the \lquote author\rquote  of these expressions exclusive rights. But the \lquote copyleft\rquote 
 approach then turns }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 some}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513  of the consequences of this system on its head and requires the sharing of the expressions. A good example can be found in the GNU General Public Licence.}{
\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/gpl.html}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513  
\par 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \lquote Flipping\rquote  some of the consequences of copyright into their partial opposite, \lquote copyleft\rquote 
 appeared to be a useful tactic for some sectors of the FLOSS movement. In fact, some in the FLOSS Movement strongly favour software copyright protection. The group \lquote Copyright4Innovation\rquote , to take one example, states in its position paper: 
\'93We believe that a system of copyright with fast, cheap and narrow claims will provide the best opportunities for innovative software-related businesses.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
Copyright4Innovation, http://www.copyright4innovation.org/content/aboutus/statement.en.html}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513  It continues: \'93
Because copyright is free and already harmonised on a global scale it is accessible to software authors worldwide, allowing those from developing countries and small companies to compete on a level playing field with the large ones.\'94}{
\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s1\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel0\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f57\fs36\lang7177\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp1033 {
\cs18\f56\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\f56\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\f56\fs20\lang7177\langfe2057\kerning36\langfenp2057\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
Why Copyright Works where Patents Fail, Copyright4Innovation, at 
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
http://www.copyright4innovation.org/content/whyitworks/index.en.html}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513  Other FLOSS websites speak of the \lquote }{\insrsid7239910 positive nature\rquote  of copyright in}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
 all fields, including software. Copyright laws and their ideologies have thus become normalised and naturalised phenomena. 
\par }{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 Others, particularly some of those within the Free Software arm of this movement, argue that \lquote copyright\rquote  and \lquote patents\rquote 
 are radically different concepts and that they are based on radically different ideologies. And so while they oppose software patents, in
 part because such laws create serious roadblocks for software developers and their own movement, they do not challenge software copyright and, in fact, they argue strenuously against any questioning of the benefits, including in the South, of copyrightin
g software. To some in this movement, copyrighting software simply does not register as an issue. 
\par 
\par This dossier is not the place to take up a wider debate about such issues. But several matters do need re-iterating. }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 First,}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513  the world\rquote s largest proprietary s
oftware firm, namely Microsoft, did}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513  not}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513  gain its global monopoly position primarily through the use of its software patents. Rather, its pre-eminent ranking was gained }{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 primarily}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513  through the protection Microsoft gained from domestic and international copyri
ght laws, in addition to the advantages it gained from trade secret laws, the proprietary standards it established, and the economics of what are known as \lquote network externalities\rquote 
. For almost the entire 20 years after Microsoft was founded in the United States in 1975, the patenting of software was either forbidden or of negligible importance and, even today, the patenting of Microsoft software is }{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 not }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 at the centrepiece of its corporate and computer power. Most other proprietary software companies mirror this situation. Se}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 cond, }{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 it is true}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513  }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 some leaders of the free and open source software }{\insrsid7239910 movements }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
may consider that the copyrighting of software does not hinder the growth of their movement. But those who a) do not use or cannot use such software and are forced to use proprietary software, or b) are not software developers, that is, they are simply }{
\insrsid7239910 \lquote }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 turn it on and use it}{\insrsid7239910 \rquote }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513  computer users and }{\insrsid7239910 are }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
indifferent to whether their machine is powered by open source or closed source (i.e. proprietary) software, do suffer m
any of the serious consequences that arise from the copyrighting of software. These effects in the South are explained and documented below. And }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 third}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
, it is obviously a positive development for access to knowledge and information across the South to have 
more and more computers in the South powered by free and open source software; again, the reasons are detailed below. But if the actual content being used or transmitted is expensive and restricted by copyright-based toll gates \endash 
 or more likely, if badly needed content for educational and other social purposes cannot be accessed, used, and shared because of copyright restrictions \endash  the access \'93battle\'94
 in the South has hardly been won if the content moving (or not moving) through free software is copyright restricted. {\*\bkmkstart _Toc109392507}
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 Beyond the \lquote 
cost of software\rquote  issue{\*\bkmkend _Toc109392507}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
\par The main question to examine here, however, is: }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 what are the negative effects of proprietary software on the countries of the South, particularly as compared to free and open source software?}{
\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  For more on the advantages of embracing free software in the South, see Section 5.8 of this dossier. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
 One caveat: While there are important direct financial benefits to choosing the latter options, focusing exclusively on immediate cost issues tends to narrow the stakes of the software use and accessibility debate. 
\par 
\par In summary form, here are a number of answers to this question, many of which relate directly to access issues and wider development issues. }{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 This section is a brief precise of a much longer 2004 report. Alan Story, \lquote Intellectual Property and Computer Software: A Battle of Competing Use and Access Visions for Countries of the South\rquote , Iss
ue paper #10, International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development / United Nations Conference on Trade and Sustainable Development, Geneva. May 2004. }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.iprsonline.org/unctadictsd/docs/CS_Story.pdf" }{\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  . In the dossier, }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
most of the statistical and wider analytical material contained in that report is omitted and, instead, this text makes a number of relatively short declarative statements. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 
\par }{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
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\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 The fact}{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 that certain types of 
software are protected by various forms of intellectual property rights significantly increases the initial purchase/licensing costs and the ongoing costs. If these restrictions were struck down, e.g., if the copyrighting of software was not permitted or 
significantly narrowed in scope, the cost of software would diminish significantly. }{\insrsid7603589 
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\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 When the per capita Gross Domestic Product (GDP) figures for countries of the industrialised North are compared with those in the South, the effective costs of proprieta
ry software are particularly harsh in the South. For example, an average person living in the United Kingdom would have to work 0.28 months (about 10 days) to purchase a Windows XP operating system and application program. In Vietnam, identical equipment 
would require 16.33 months of labour and in Bangladesh, 19.19 months. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the effective cost of the Windows XP and Office software package would be US$199,394 and it would take the average wage earner 67.83 months}{
\insrsid11561134\charrsid13848513  \endash  }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 more than five years}{\insrsid11561134\charrsid13848513  \endash  }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 of earnings to purchase this package. }{
\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid13848513 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s16\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tqc\tx4153\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\fs20\lang2057\langfe1033\super\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\lang2057\langfe1033\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  See Story ICTSD, citing R.A.Ghosh, 
\hich\f56 \lquote \loch\f56 Licence fees and GDP per capita: the case for open source in developing countries\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56 , First Monday, Vol. 12, No. 8 (December 2003).}}}{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid8267688 
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\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
Licensing costs for proprietary software are notably onerous for governments in countries of the South, including the relatively more prosperous ones. As John Perry Barlow of the US Electronic Frontier Foundation said in a speech to the World Social Forum
 in January 2005, \'93already Brazil spends more in licensing fees on proprietary software than it spends on hunger.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  \lquote 
Activists Urge Free Open Source Software\rquote , Associated Press, 31 January 2005. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  (In Brazil, only about 10 per cent of the population own a computer at home and the government is the country}{\insrsid5580252 
\rquote s biggest computer purchaser.)}{\insrsid7603589 
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\f66\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 \'93The beauty of free software\'85is that the freedom you receive is the freedom to learn}{\f66\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid8483307  }{
\f66\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 from other people\rquote s techniques, strategies and focus on problem s
olving. Something that has been unheard of in this industry (although it is a pretty common thing in science). So people have a chance to join the effort, and be part of the team of people that are producing knowledge, culture and, as a result, wealth.
\'94
\par }{\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid8483307 
\par }{\i\f66\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 Miguel de Icaza (Mexico), president of the open source company Ximian, \'93Miguel de Icaza Tells All,\'94 Slashdot, 4 April 2000. 
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\par }}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt14\dptxbx\dptxlrtb{\dptxbxtext\pard\plain \s20\qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tqc\tx4153\tqr\tx8306\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10252056 
\f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp1033 {\f66\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 \'93The beauty of free software\'85is that the freedom you receive is the freedom to learn}{
\f66\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid8483307  }{\f66\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 from other people\rquote s techniques, strategies and focus on problem s
olving. Something that has been unheard of in this industry (although it is a pretty common thing in science). So people have a chance to join the effort, and be part of the team of people that are producing knowledge, culture and, as a result, wealth.
\'94
\par }{\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid8483307 
\par }{\i\f66\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 Miguel de Icaza (Mexico), president of the open source company Ximian, \'93Miguel de Icaza Tells All,\'94 Slashdot, 4 April 2000. 
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The costs of proprietary software, both the initial charges costs and ongoing licensing fees, are another financial barrier to accessing the Internet. By comparison, there are no ongoing licensing fees for free software.}{\insrsid5580252 
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\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 In the South, only a relatively small elite can afford to purchase the licence for off-the-shelf (and \lquote non-pirated\rquote ) proprietary software. As for schools, \'93}{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
With the exception of a few parts of South Africa, there is not a single government or a school system }{\i\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 anywhere in Africa }{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 that can 
afford the costs of a Microsoft licence for their school systems.\'94}{\cs18\cf1\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s16\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tqc\tx4153\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
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\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  Tony Roberts, Computeraid International (}{\fs20\lang2057\langfe1033\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 emphasis added)}{\fs20\lang2057\langfe1033\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 , in Story, CIPR study. }}}{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  }{\cf1\insrsid7603589 
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\jclisttab\tx0\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls49\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 {\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
The regular and often annual upgrading of proprietary software requires users to also regularly upgrade their hardware to operate that software properly; this is an additional ongoing expense that is particularly onerous in parts of the world where many p
eople would like to buy their first computer. A }{\i\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 Business Week}{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  magazine computer expert noted in late 2001, \'93Windows XP [\'85
] will place a lot more demands on your computer, so millions of people, especially with those more than two years old, may need new ones.\'94}{\cs18\cf1\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Cited in Story ICTSD, p. 21. }}}{\cf1\insrsid7603589 
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\jclisttab\tx0\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls49\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 {\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 Proprietary software does not fulfil the requirements for technology transfer, one of the stated objectives of the 1}{
\cf1\insrsid7239910 994 TRIPS Agreement, which among}{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  other }{\cf1\insrsid9924030\charrsid7747762 things}{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  protects computer software as a copyrighted work.}{
\cs18\cf1\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  On technology transfer in TRIPS, see Articles 7, 8 and 66(2).}}}{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 A key aspect of technology transfer is whether the technology is capable of local adaptation; as two commentators have explained, \'93}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 in building technological dynamism, what matters most is not the
 transfer of technology }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 per se}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  but its adaptation and assimilation in the local economy.\'94 }{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 P. Roffe and T. Tesfachew, \lquote Revisiting the Technology Transfer Debate: Lessons of the new WTO Working Group\rquote , Bridges, Vol. 6, No. 2 (2002). }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  }{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 The v
ery nature of proprietary software \endash  }{\cf1\insrsid9924030 its}{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  non-adaptability and, indeed, the unavailability of its source code due to i}{\cf1\insrsid9924030 ntellectual property protection}{
\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  \endash  makes it a technology that is not transferred, but merely licensed for use }{\i\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 as is, }{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 and it is a licensing p
rocess that operates in a particularly detrimental way for countries in the South. }{\cf1\insrsid7603589 
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Instead of transferring technology, the use of intellectual property protected proprietary software leads to dependence and over-reliance on imported technologies. As Ivan Moura Campos, a leading developer of Brazil\rquote 
s Popular PC project explained several years ago, \'93we realised that this (lack of access) was not a First World problem. We are not going to find a Swedish or Swiss company to solve this for us. We have to do it for ourselves.\'94 }{
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\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  See Story, CIPR Study.}}}{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  }{\cf1\insrsid7603589 
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\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 Unlike proprietary software, free and open source software allows software developers (and users) to share their technical skills/knowledge and adapt the resulting software for local needs. Here are \lquote testimonials
\rquote  from two such developers, one from Mexico and the other from India}{\insrsid9924030  (see boxes)}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 . }{\insrsid7603589 
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{\shp{\*\shpinst\shpleft3000\shptop352\shpright8400\shpbottom6562\shpfhdr0\shpbxcolumn\shpbxignore\shpbypara\shpbyignore\shpwr4\shpwrk0\shpfblwtxt1\shpz15\shplid1041{\sp{\sn shapeType}{\sv 202}}{\sp{\sn fFlipH}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fFlipV}{\sv 0}}
{\sp{\sn lTxid}{\sv 1048576}}{\sp{\sn fRecolorFillAsPicture}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn fUseShapeAnchor}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn shadowOpacity}{\sv 32768}}{\sp{\sn shadowOffsetX}{\sv 76200}}{\sp{\sn shadowOffsetY}{\sv 76200}}
{\sp{\sn fShadow}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn f3D}{\sv 0}}{\sp{\sn pWrapPolygonVertices}{\sv 8;8;(-60,-52);(-60,21600);(360,21652);(360,21965);(22080,21965);(22080,417);(21660,-52);(-60,-52)}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}
{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\shptxt \pard\plain \qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10252056 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\insrsid8483307 \lquote }{
\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 I\rquote m a software engineer, a hacker. I write software and when I wrote my first software I said to myself that this is definitely a new idea and I don\rquote 
t think anyone else has ever thought of this before. So I went to my friend and guru, Kiren Sahi, and
 told him about my new idea. He said that he had some disappointing news, which was that the era of new ideas is a misnomer; you have been born after it. On the planet we have eight billion people and so if any one of us comes up with a new idea, then res
t
 assured that because of the statistics, six other people will be thinking of the exact same idea and at the exact same time. So I said how do I find the other six? So he said you must go to Google and I found not just six, but 30,000 people who shared my
 
new idea and 8.24 lakh free software developers were working on 78,000 new ideas. So this is the reason why technical people like me want to place our new ideas in the public domain. It is because we find collaboration and partners and consequently we are
 able to accomplish}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056  }{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 what we want to }{\f66\insrsid8483307 do in a much more rapid manner\'85\rquote }{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 
\par }\pard\plain \s28\qr \li0\ri0\sb100\sa100\sbauto1\saauto1\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10252056 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs32\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 
Sunil Abraham (India) is the head of Mahiti and a frontline exponent of the }{\cs32\i\f66\insrsid8483307 Open Source movement. Speech at \lquote }{\cs32\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 IPR a}{\cs32\i\f66\insrsid8483307 
nd the Media: Emerging Paradigms\rquote }{\cs32\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056  Seminar, Bangalore, 7-8 April 2004. }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.voicesforall.org/ipr/voices_ipr_workshop.htm" }{\f66\insrsid1708660\charrsid10252056 {\*\datafield 
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\par }}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt15\dptxbx\dptxlrtb{\dptxbxtext\pard\plain \qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10252056 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\f66\insrsid8483307 \lquote }{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 I\rquote m a software engineer, a hacker. I write software and when I wrote my first software I said to myself that this is definitely a new idea and I don\rquote 
t think anyone else has ever thought of this before. So I went to my friend and guru, Kiren Sahi, and
 told him about my new idea. He said that he had some disappointing news, which was that the era of new ideas is a misnomer; you have been born after it. On the planet we have eight billion people and so if any one of us comes up with a new idea, then res
t
 assured that because of the statistics, six other people will be thinking of the exact same idea and at the exact same time. So I said how do I find the other six? So he said you must go to Google and I found not just six, but 30,000 people who shared my
 
new idea and 8.24 lakh free software developers were working on 78,000 new ideas. So this is the reason why technical people like me want to place our new ideas in the public domain. It is because we find collaboration and partners and consequently we are
 able to accomplish}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056  }{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 what we want to }{\f66\insrsid8483307 do in a much more rapid manner\'85\rquote }{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 
\par }\pard\plain \s28\qr \li0\ri0\sb100\sa100\sbauto1\saauto1\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10252056 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs32\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 
Sunil Abraham (India) is the head of Mahiti and a frontline exponent of the }{\cs32\i\f66\insrsid8483307 Open Source movement. Speech at \lquote }{\cs32\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 IPR a}{\cs32\i\f66\insrsid8483307 
nd the Media: Emerging Paradigms\rquote }{\cs32\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056  Seminar, Bangalore, 7-8 April 2004. }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.voicesforall.org/ipr/voices_ipr_workshop.htm" }{\f66\insrsid1708660\charrsid10252056 {\*\datafield 
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6f0070002e00680074006d000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b7000000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0076006f00690063006500730066006f00720061006c006c002e006f00720067002f006900700072002f0076006f0069006300650073005f006900700072005f0077006f0072006b
00730068006f0070002e00680074006d0000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 http://www.voicesforall.org/ipr/voices_ipr_workshop.htm}}}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid10252056 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}\dpx3000\dpy352\dpxsize5400\dpysize6210\dpfillfgcr255\dpfillfgcg255\dpfillfgcb255\dpfillbgcr255\dpfillbgcg255\dpfillbgcb255\dpfillpat1\dplinew15\dplinecor0\dplinecog0\dplinecob0}}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
Further economic development issues are implicated as well. For example, the dangers to countries (and their computer users) relying on proprietary software is revealed from }{\insrsid9924030 a }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
recent dispute in Korea. The Korean government\rquote s Fair Trade Commission was very concerned about the anti-competitive effects of Microsoft\rquote s bundling together its instant messaging service with its Windows
 software and prepared to launch a legal case against the giant US-based corporation. In response, Microsoft threatened to withdraw Windows entirely from Korea, a move which, at least in the short run, would have had enormous negative economic consequence
s for the Korean economy.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 
{\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Dan Milmo, \'93South Korea fines Microsoft \'a318M,\'94 The Guardian, 8 December 2005. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 (In the longer run, the Korean government might have appreciated the instability generated by such a reliance on Microsoft products and commenced bui
lding a new software regime giving a favourable prejudice to non-proprietary software, as has been done in Brazil.) But the Korean Fair Trade Commission was not intimidated by Microsoft\rquote 
s bargaining tactics and fined the company $US32 million in December 2005 for its anti-competitive practices. }{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid. }}}{
\insrsid5580252 
\par }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5580252 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx0\faauto\ls49\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 {
\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 The government and people of Lebanon were also given a lesson, this time directly by the US government, when some legislators tried to challenge the powers of proprietary software monopolies. In both 1
997 and 1999, there was vigorous opposition in the Lebanese parliament to draft government legislation on the subject of computer software. A number of Lebanese MPs argued against a statutory change that would permit, for the first time, software to be pr
o
tected by copyright laws. They also said that computer system owners, such as Microsoft, should be required to grant compulsory software licences to poorer students and to educational institutions. As a result of pressures applied by Microsoft, Adobe, and
 other software multinationals, Lebanon was put on a US Trade Representatives \lquote Special 301 Watch List\rquote 
 (meaning that the US government could decide to impose trade sanctions) for considering such a reform. Lebanon complied and the bill was passed.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  See Sto
ry, ICTSD, p. 15. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  }{\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5580252 {\insrsid5580252\charrsid7747762 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s20 \f2\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard\plain \s20\qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\tqc\tx4153\tqr\tx8306\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls49\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid5580252 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp1033 {\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
Proprietary software creates closed \lquote operating standards\rquote  that are not compatible with other types of software and uses intellectual property laws to maintain a near-monopoly for its own proprietary \endash 
 that is, privately owned and controlled \endash 
 standards. Here a comparison with the international postal system is useful. As is well known, if you live in Country A and want to mail a letter to Country B, you can buy a stamp and mail your letter in Country A
 and it will be recognised by Country B; your letter will be delivered in B without any hassles or formalities. The postal service in Country B does NOT say, \'93sorry, but in order to deliver a letter in our country, you have to use OUR STAMPS.\'94 That
\rquote s because postal services operate on the basis of open, meaning public and compatible, standards. National telephone systems use open international standards as well. Again, can you imagine phoning another country and being told, \'93
 sorry, but to phone a friend in our country you have to use our language.\'94
 One does not have to think very long to appreciate the benefits of how much easier computer-to-computer communications would be if software also operated on the basis of open and compatible standards. }{\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid14305830 

\par }\pard \s20\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tqc\tx4153\tqr\tx8306\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5580252 {\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid5580252\charrsid7747762 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s20 \f2\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard \s20\qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\tqc\tx4153\tqr\tx8306\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls49\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid5580252 {\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 Large r
etailers sometimes engage in pricing wars with the principal goal of driving smaller competitors out of business and, then \'93having the field\'94
 to themselves, they are able to set even more uncompetitive price levels. Microsoft also engages in a wide range o
f questionable pricing and marketing policies to reinforce their dominating position. Indeed, sometimes Microsoft will give away its software to governments and users in the South }{\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid9924030 at }{
\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 no cost whatsoever. But once computer users become familiar solely with s
ystems such as Windows and Word, switching to alternative systems, such as free and open source software, is much more difficult. In other words, once they have had their \'93Windows fix\'94
, computer users will find it difficult to even try an alternative software system\'85
 and proprietary licensing charges will carry on annually. In Brazil, Microsoft is trying to counter the expansion of Linux, the leading open source operating system, by creating software known as the \lquote Windows Starter Edition\rquote 
; this is basically a low-grade version of Windows. The idea is to use the lower-priced \lquote Starter Edition\rquote , which actually costs more to manufacture, as a way of leveraging the market, gaining market entry, and challenging Linux. }{
\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard \s20\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tqc\tx4153\tqr\tx8306\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5580252 {\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid5580252\charrsid7747762 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard\plain \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx0\faauto\ls49\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 There is little disputing the fact that levels of so-called software \lquote piracy\rquote 
 are high in the South. Although accurate and verifiable statistics are difficult to find, some unofficial estimates suggest that up to 90 per cent of the software used in Argentina is pirated. Percentages for China and s
ome other countries are reportedly even higher. Why such high levels? On the one hand, proprietary software owners sometimes knowingly allow \lquote piracy\rquote  to continue without challenge or serious enforcement efforts. Why? The \lquote fix\rquote 
 question comes up again. Getting potential customers \lquote hooked\rquote  on proprietary software becomes just another marketing tool; at a later stage when there are many users of the \lquote pirated\rquote 
 software, the copyright owner is then in a position to reap the financial benefits and assert their intellectual property \lquote rights.\rquote 
 , The experience of the Philippines is instructive on this point. In the past, the Philippines government was a major user of \lquote pirated\rquote  Microsoft software. But once Microsoft established a major presence there, one of its firs
t moves was to negotiate a deal with the Philippines government under which all of the \lquote pirate\rquote  software was declared \lquote legal\rquote 
 after the payment of a small fee to Microsoft. In exchange, the government agreed to become much more aggressive in the enforcemen
t of copyright; a special enforcement agency was established, many raids were conducted (with the assistance of and accompaniment by officials from the Business Software Association) and criminal prosecutions were conducted in special courts. As one Phili
ppines activist put it, \'93every raid means increased sales for Microsoft.\'94 And in fact today, shops in Manila and elsewhere are being pressured to pay a type of royalty fee to Microsoft per unit of }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 hardware}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  sold because it is presumed that every personal computer sold has been preloaded with Microsoft products, \lquote legitimate\rquote  or \lquote pirated\rquote . }{\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5580252 {\insrsid5580252\charrsid7747762 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s20 \f2\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard\plain \s20\qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\tqc\tx4153\tqr\tx8306\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls49\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid5580252 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp1033 {\lang7177\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
Many parts of the South are badly in need of skilled computer technicians and indeed hundreds of so-called \lquote computer academies\rquote  have been established. However, most of th
ese programmes are essentially training shops for the installation of Microsoft products and do little to spread more widely applicable and sophisticated computer skills. }{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
As two Argentinean computer programmers have written:
\par }\pard \s20\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tqc\tx4153\tqr\tx8306\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid7747762 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 The knowledge content of those
 programs, however, doesn't go any further than providing skills in the use of their proprietary software, and contributes little if anything to the comprehension of the general mechanisms that come into play. They don't teach the user how to use a word p
r
ocessor, for instance, but how to use a very specific, proprietary word processing program. Far from contributing to software literacy, these educational programs are marketing tools designed to produce users that are dependent on a particular program. Pe
ople who attend these courses are typically unaware even of the existence of alternative solutions, and completely at a loss when confronted with a different program to solve the same need.}{\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Heinz and Heinz cited in Story, CIPR study. }}}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \s20\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tqc\tx4153\tqr\tx8306\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp1033 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par }\pard \s20\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tqc\tx4153\tqr\tx8306\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7747762 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 In fact, as Heinz concludes, \'93as}{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 a consequence of widespread use of proprietary software developed abroad, the local market for information technology professionals is limited to openings for \lquote computer janitor\rquote .\'94}{\cs18\cf1\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Heinz cited in Story, CIPR Study. }}}{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  
\par }\pard \s20\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tqc\tx4153\tqr\tx8306\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\b\f1\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 Conclusion 
\par }\pard\plain \s20\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tqc\tx4153\tqr\tx8306\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp1033 {\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
This type of statistical and anecdotal evidence begins to sketch out a picture for the South in which proprietary software, protected by a combination of patent, copyright and trade secret laws, does not lead to technological transfer or independence, but
 rather reinforces a technological \lquote lock-in\rquote . Proprietary software dramatically increases software costs and decreases computer access. And is it any wonder that there are such high rates of so-called \lquote pirated\rquote 
 software in many countries of the South}{\cf1\insrsid9924030 ? Nor does proprietary software }{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 provide a catalyst for sustained and substantial economic and social development, but rather leads to further subordination
\'85and daily creates increasingly vociferous and dedicated challenges to the still dominant proprietary software ethos exported by the North.}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  }{\insrsid14305830\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid10252056 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734294}
4.10 The visually impaired in the South: shut out of reading by copyright roadblocks{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734294} 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid13267098 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc109392522}
\par }{\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 Getting accurate statistics{\*\bkmkend _Toc109392522}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par It is difficult to get accurate figures as to the number of blind, visually-impaired and print-handicapped persons in the South; such a figure is necessary to quantify, with any precision, the total number of people negatively affected }{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 directly}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  by copyright restrictions. The whole world suffers }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 indirectly}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 by the unnecessary legal restrictions on their contribution to our world. 
\par 
\par \lquote Official figures\rquote  significantly underestimate the situation. According to a December 2004 study by the World Health Organisation
 (based on the world population in 2002), more than 161 million people were visually impaired; 124 million had low vision and 37 million were blind. (An earlier estimate by the World Blind Union suggested that there were more than 180 million blind and pa
rtially sighted persons.) The WHO study concluded that \'93the burden of visual impairment is not uniformly distributed through the world; the least developed regions carry the largest share.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Global data on visual impairment in the year 2002, World Health Organisation, Bulletin of the World Health Organisation, November 2004, 82 (11). }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 The developing world (excluding India and China) accounted for 19.4 million of the 37 million, with India and China totalling 6.7 and 6.9 million respectively. Hence, countries of the South accounted for 33 million of the 37 million blind persons on the 
g
lobe. This North-South disparity is likely to increase in coming years as the percentage of the total population aged 50+, that is, the age bracket most likely to be blind, is increasing much faster in the South. In this age bracket, there was a 16% incre
ase in developed countries between 1990 and 2002 compared to 47% in developing countries (excluding China) over the same period. The study concluded that \'93the extent of low vision worldwide is underestimated.\'94
\par 
\par But this quotation minimises the consequences of a key statistical issue. One of the main reasons for the WHO\rquote s underestimation, both for low vision and blind persons, is that its calculations are based }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 solely}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  on the number of persons who officially \lquote register\rquote  as visually disabled with their own national government. Analysing the results of a UK survey in the 1980s conducted by the Royal National Institute }{
\insrsid15298483 for}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  the Blind, Richard Tucker says that study shows that \'93there were many more people who really ought to be registered as having low vision but were not.\'94}{
\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Richard Tucker (FORCE Foundation, The Netherlands), Vision 2002, 7}{\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 th}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 International Conference on Low Vision, Gothenburg Sweden 21-25 July 2002. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  And citing another study done in the Netherlands with somewhat similar results, he has estimated that \'93
for every registered person, there are about }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 ten}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 unregistered people who have difficulty reading [i.e. reading material that can be read by sighted people] because of a lack of visual acuity.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Op cit. ( italics added) }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  This is the estimate for two rich Northern countries. 
\par 
\par The accuracy of the latest WHO figures is even more questionable in the South. Here there is less motivation to become \lquote registered\rquote  as blind with one\rquote s own national government because government assistance programs for the blind ar
e much less extensive. As well, governments often give little encouragement to register because full acknowledgement of the problem might give a wider lobbying impact to organisations of and for the blind, nationally and internationally. Additionally in t
he South, there is a less extensive communications and government infrastructure. And finally there is }{\insrsid9924030 the }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 critical matter of the link or \lquote confusion\rquote 
 between illiteracy and blindness; millions of blind people are illiterate primarily because they cannot get
 access to accessible reading materials. Here again, say knowledgeable observers, copyright restrictions are one key barrier to access. As well, there is the shame and embarrassment of reporting one\rquote s own illiteracy. To conclude: }{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 the actual number of blind and low vision persons in the South is dramatically understated.}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  {\*\bkmkstart _Toc109392523}
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
The basis of the access problem{\*\bkmkend _Toc109392523}s faced by the visually impaired
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par The severest hindrance to the blind and the visually impaired in accessing information and knowledge arises from the fact that the original format in which most books and other published material are printed (or available on the Internet) is }{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 not}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  accessible to them. For such materials to be usable by them, they must be converted into an accessible form
at; such a format could be large print (especially important for those with low vision), or audio (e.g. an audio tape or CD of a book), or in braille, or in various computer-assisted formats, such as synthetic speech or on enlarged screen displays (e.g. b
y altering features such as colour or font.) 
\par 
\par But, and here is the key legal issue:}{\insrsid8267688  i}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 n order to convert a copyright-protected work to a different format (or font size) from the original work, it must be copied (or typographic}{\insrsid9924030 
ally altered). Copying a work (}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 meaning, in legal language, \'93reproducing the work in any material form\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 See, for example, Section 17.2 of the United Kingdom\rquote s }{\i\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
. This approach mirrors that found in other national copyright legislation, including in the South.}}}{\insrsid9924030 )}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 without the permission of the owner is copyright infringement; it is a breach of statutory duty and case law. Copyright doctrine dictates that copying a work is the exclusive right of the copyright owner. Alternatively, a work could be read aloud 
\endash  this is called \'93performing a work\'94 \endash  and recorded, but, again, the owner is given the exclusive right to perform a work. The legal straight-jacket is a tight and unbending one. 
\par 
\par Some minor reforms, which do allow (in narrowly drawn situations) the \lquote copying\rquote  of the original work to make a single copy \endash  without the prior permission of the copyright owner \endash 
 have been won in countries of the North, such as the US, Canada, the UK, some Scandinavian countries, and New Zealand. This is undertaken by the co
nversion of copyrighted hard copy or digital works to accessible formats. (Previously it had been illegal, for example in the UK, to make even one accessible copy without receiving permission from the rightsholder.) But David Mann, a copyright and access 
specialist with the World Blind Union, says he does not know of a single country in the South which has implemented even this narrow exception. 
\par 
\par The problem is further exacerbated because such a small percentage of material in accessible formats is available in the normal marketplace for blind persons; what we could call \lquote self-conversion\rquote  (or non-market conversion) is often the }{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 only route}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  to access. To cite another UK example, the World Blind Union has estimated that \'93only around 5% of published titles ever
 become available in accessible formats and it is rare indeed for the accessible version to come out until months or years after the original.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Presentation by the World Blind Union to the Standing Committee on Copyright and Related Rights, the World Intellectual Property Organisation, 3 November 2003. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 More recent research conducted by the Royal National Institute }{\insrsid15298483 for}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 the Blind in the UK shows that the proportion of books available in accessible formats in the UK is even less today than it was five years ago. It is fair to say, conclude spokespersons for blind rights organisations, that }{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 an even smaller percentage}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  of accessible works is available in countries of the South; moreover, accessible works produced in rich countries often cannot be exported to t
he South because of copyright restrictions as is discussed below. {\*\bkmkstart _Toc109392524}
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
The access problems in the South created by copyright}{\f1\fs24\insrsid14305830\charrsid9309490 {\*\bkmkend _Toc109392524}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid12615270\charrsid7747762 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 For blind and partially-sighted persons in the South (and in the North as well), there are a wide range of pressing access issues. Although copyright laws are often }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 not}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  the only source of the access problem for the visually impaired and wider economic disp
arities should not be forgotten, rights owners and their representatives continually raise presumptions derived from copyright laws and its accompanying ideology to block needed access\'85 and render access either unnecessarily complicated or }{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 often impossible. 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par Among the practical consequences of the current copyright regime for Southern countries, the following should be noted: }{\insrsid14305830\charrsid7747762 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 a)\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx0\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls50\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 Copyright licensing restrictions do }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 not}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 allow materials that have been converted, with permission, into accessible formats in one country to be exported to another. For example, the Royal National Institute }{\insrsid15298483 for}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 the Blind in the UK has reached a licensing agreement with a few UK publishers under which the RNIB has been permitted, usually upon payment of a licensing fee, to convert 
a limited number of standard university textbooks into accessible formats. However, students in the South (for example, the 90 blind English-speaking students who enter university and colleges each year in Ghana) are not able to get access to these conver
t
ed materials because of the copyright restrictions found in the RNIB licence. Instead (and given that accessible materials are so limited across the South) these Ghanaian students are often required to employ sighted person to act as readers for their stu
dies. This is hardly an ideal learning situation; it is also expensive for such blind students and often prolongs their studies for many years, says Chris Friend, an official with Sight Savers International, which does work in this region. 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 b)\tab}In fact, the 
most serious problem for countries of the South (and for organisations of and for the blind) seeking to provide access to the blind is that they must duplicate, in nearly every instance, the conversion process completed elsewhere}{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  on the very same materials}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
. Converting books to Braille or other formats is an expensive process, yet, because of copyright and related licensing restrictions, the very same book must be converted again and again by organisations located in different countries. \'93
It is a huge waste of resources, especially so when resources for access by the blind are already so limited in developing countries,\'94
 says Richard Tucker of the Force Foundation, a Dutch-headquartered organisation that assists in the production of accessible materials for t
he visually impaired across the South. Although it is difficult to give precise figures on the costs of conversion, Tucker says that the cost of converting a book to an accessible format operates on about a 1 to 5 ratio (per page). This means that a 
\lquote regular\rquote 
 book retailing for US $20.00 will cost about US$100.00 to produce in an accessible format. Most of the per-page cost comes from producing the master and such a cost assumes, to take one of several factors, that the converting producer is using automati
c page-turning equipment. Such equipment is not found in the South. Using manual page turning equipment, which is also rarely found in Southern countries, escalates the cost ten-fold. In other words, this same US$20.00 book would now cost US$200.00 to con
vert. Certainly labour costs are much lower in the South, but \'93a very large percentage of the budget [of organisations in the South producing accessible books] is taken up in producing Braille and large print books,\'94
 says Tucker. Yet, the very same books have often already been converted in the North and could be transmitted to the South in digital format, either through e-mail or by regular post. But the restrictions of copyright law prevent this occurring. \'93
It should be possible for accessible materials created under an exception in one jurisdiction to be imported for the benefit of blind or partially sighted people in another\'94,}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 World Blind Union, An Advice Note- Exceptions or Limitations to Copyright for Blind, Partially Sighted or other Print Disabled People, 30 June 2004. The author is David Mann. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 states the World Blind Union in an implicit critique of the single jurisdiction-based limits on users' rights. We believe it is difficult to disagree. 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 c)\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls50\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid539741 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 A related problem occurs between even adjoining coun
tries in the South. If a blind rights organisation in one country in the South, for example Ghana, negotiates an agreement to convert materials in one country and expends significant funds to produce such an accessible work, that same work cannot be used 
in another African country. Instead, organisations of the blind in other African countries must not only negotiate a separate agreement, but also produce their own Braille or audio version. Again, this is extremely wasteful of already limited resources. 

\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7747762 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 T
he partial nature of reforms in rich developed countries 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid12615270\charrsid7747762 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 In past decades, organisations of the blind in rich countries, such as those in the UK and the USA, have been able to lobby successfully for very limited copyright exceptions for the production in 
an accessible format of single copies. Since 2003, unlike before, users in the UK }{\insrsid9924030\charrsid7747762 have }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 no longer been required to get the written permission by a rights owner to convert a single copy.}{
\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  As noted above, even these limited reforms are confined to the North. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  The UK\rquote s }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2002, }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
which came into force on 31 October 2003, is an example of the type of legislation that some people are advocating should also be adopted by Southern countries. To produce a single accessible copy
, this UK Act removed the need for prior permission by the copyright owner. This was a small step forward. But many access restrictions remain. Accessible materials which are commercially available, often at high prices for blind purchasers, cannot be cop
ied and, as Kevin Garrett notes, \'93there is no requirement [in the Act] that the commercially-available copies should be available at a cost which is either reasonable or one which the visually impaired person can afford.\'94}{
\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Kevin Garnett, \lquote The Copyright (Visually Impaired Persons) Act 2000\rquote , European Intellectual Property Review 2003, 25(11), 522, 524. }}}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  Data bases cannot legally be converted. The master copy cannot be used by an individual to make a second copy and a visually-impaired person must retain the
 master copy or, strangely, that person would be considered as being in the possession of an infringing copy\'85
and thus breaking the law. The making of multiple copies is possible in certain limited circumstances, but the process is highly constricted. Overall, this statute is \'93convoluted\'94 with \'93ill-drafted provisions\'94 that are \'93onerous\'94
 and which \'93do not seem to be required by the [highly restrictive] Berne [Convention] three step test \'85\'94 }{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Garnett, 526-527.}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  It is an orientation and a set of restrictions that should }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 not}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  be exported to the South.
\par 
\par The numerous time and money problems that arise in both getting permission
 to create an accessible version of a work and actually carrying out the production of accessible materials are an additional access issue. The set of hurdles is similar, in one sense, to those faced by sighted persons, such as students, and their teacher
s. For example, publishers (i.e. copyright owners) in the North and South create as many administrative burdens and financial roadblocks as possible \endash  and greatly increase the transaction costs \endash 
 for the production by teachers of course packs required for their students and, indeed, they actively discourage the process.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 See materials on the website of the (UK) Copyright in Higher Education Workgroup (CHEW); accessible at }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.ukcle.ac.uk/copyright/index.html" }{
\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b5800000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0075006b0063006c0065002e00610063002e0075006b002f0063006f0070007900720069006700680074002f0069006e006400650078002e0068007400
6d006c000000000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.ukcle.ac.uk/copyright/index.html}}}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  Rights holders would much prefer teachers to assign publishers\rquote 
 books (that is, their own books) to students as the profit margins are much higher for them. But for the blind and visually impaired, this \lquote discouragement\rquote  becomes a complet
e roadblock as very few accessible texts are even produced, let alone sold. Denise Nicholson, a South African specialist in copyright matters related to access }{\insrsid9924030 to }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
educational materials, highlights the problem in her country: 
\par }{\ul\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid7747762 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
Someone who is partially-sighted may be able to enlarge a 'fair and reasonable' portion of a work in a photocopied format, in terms of 'fair dealing' for his/her own personal use, but if they need to convert the [whole] work [which is the more obvious and
 
pressing need as access to and the use of mere short passages permitted by fair dealing are seldom sufficient for learning purposes] into a more accessible format, e.g. Braille; a digitized format, audiotape, etc., they cannot do so, without first getting
 
permission from the publisher. Unfortunately, getting copyright clearance can take several months. When a blind learner needs his/her educational and study material immediately for his course, test, etc. this is a great hindrance. Where sighted learners w
ould be able to get on and do their work, the visually-impaired learner would be disadvantaged, as he/she would have to wait for permission and if granted, wait for someone to convert the material to an accessible format.}{
\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Denise Nicholson, \lquote Does copyright have any significance in the lives of illiterate or visually-impaired persons, WIPOUT contest essay, 2001. Accessible at: 

\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
HYPERLINK https://www.kent.ac.uk/law/undergraduate/modules/ip/resources/WIPEOUT.htm }{\fs20\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b94000000680074007400700073003a002f002f007700770077002e006b0065006e0074002e00610063002e0075006b002f006c00610077002f0075006e00640065007200670072006100640075006100740065002f00
6d006f00640075006c00650073002f00690070002f007200650073006f00750072006300650073002f0057004900500045004f00550054002e00680074006d000000000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 https://www.kent.ac.uk/law/undergraduate/modules
/ip/resources/WIPEOUT.htm}}}}}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7747762 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par Making multiple copies needed for teaching purposes in accessible formats is even more difficult. There is no provision in South African copyright law to address and overcome any of these problems, Nicholson concludes. And th
e situation is even more desperate in poorer countries in the South than South Africa. 
\par 
\par The copyright prohibitions against translations are a further barrier. It is already difficult enough to undertake technical conversions for the visually impaired and 
to make them internationally available to persons understanding the same language. Because the translation (of copyrighted works) from another language cannot }{\insrsid9924030 be}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  done without permission,}{
\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  For more on translation and copyright, see Section 4.11}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  the produc
tion of accessible translated works (either by converting existing hard copy translations or by doing \lquote new\rquote  translations for conversions) is, again, all but impossible.
\par 
\par In the few countries that allow exceptions in their copyright statu}{\insrsid9924030 t}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 es (and none, seem
ingly, are in the South), only particular organisations of and for the blind within that same country have been designated as the sole beneficiaries of these exceptions. This means that other organisations within that country cannot take advantage of this
 exception and thus cannot produce materials. More significantly, this practice does not allow any organisations producing accessible materials to share their materials with the blind in other countries, including the South. 
\par 
\par Copyright can also be a proble
m for the blind and the deaf in accessing materials that are already in the public domain- at least for sighted people. (In the case of the deaf, digital rights management schemes used for E-books block the use of text-to-speech software. Moreover, conver
s
ion from one format to the other has to be cleared first; any modifications, e.g. to make information more visual for deaf persons or to convert from one format to another for better access, has to be cleared before they can be used. ) The World Blind Uni
on\rquote s Manifesto for a United Nations Convention on the Rights of People with Dis}{\insrsid9924030 abilities of 2003 states, under }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 Section 5.4, that the \lquote Right to information and Communication\rquote 
 includes: \'93}{\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 The right to the provision, in a timely manner and without additional co
st, of all information in the public domain in formats that are accessible to blind and partially sighted people, such as Braille, audio, large print and electronic text, regardless of any copyright laws. This is to include all correspondence and informat
ion from public services, such as hospitals, public utilities and government departments, as well as those providing an essential service such as banks.\'94}{\cs18\b\lang9\langfe2057\super\langnp9\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  WBU Manifesto, at }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 HYPERLINK http://www.euroblind.org/fichiersGB/wbumanif.htm }{\fs20\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b6200000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e006500750072006f0062006c0069006e0064002e006f00720067002f0066006900630068006900650072007300470042002f007700620075006d006100
6e00690066002e00680074006d000000000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.euroblind.org/fichiersGB/wbumanif.htm}}}{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  ( italics added) }}}{
\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc109392525}
\par }{\f1\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\f1\fs24\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 A concluding note{\*\bkmkend _Toc109392525}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 Prominent copyright scholars have written that copyright laws seek \'93to encourage the widest possible production and }{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 dissemination}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  of literary, musical, and artistic works.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Paul Goldstein, Copyright, Section 1.1, cited in Robert A. Kreiss, Accessibility and Commercialization in Copyright Theory, 43 UCLA Law Review 1 (1995), note 1.}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  From this it follows that for this dissemination
 to be meaningful it must be accessible. \'93
If an author [more accurately, the copyright owner] seeks to benefit by commercializing a work, then the public should be able to benefit by having access to the work. If access is denied to the public for a work w
here the author [owner] is receiving the economic benefits made available by the copyright system, then the goals of copyright are not being served.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Kreiss, op. cit. p. 4. It is true that unpublished (and hence inaccessible ) works also receive copyrigh
t protection, but the owner does not receive economic benefits from such works, unlike the owners of published materials who choose, primarily for economic reasons, not be make such works accessible to the visually impaired. }}}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  Blind persons, nationally and globally, are certainly members of \lquote the public\rquote , yet they cannot get access to most materials that are copyright protected \endash  or, more appropriately copyright restricted 
\endash  by their own national laws and the international ideology of copyright. And conversion of such materials into accessible formats }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 does not entail any loss of revenues for copyright owners.}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  Finally, computer technology (e.g. scanners, the Daisy system) has dramatically increased the ease and decreased the cost of converting printed material
s into accessible formats for the blind and the visually-impaired. Taking the fullest possible advantage of these technological advances is, however, repeatedly stymied, in both the North and the South, by copyright restrictions. A central problem: On the
 one hand, rights holders are automatically given legally-enforceable rights and protections on a world-wide basis (e.g. through the \lquote national treatment\rquote 
 provisions of the Berne Convention explained in Section 2.7), but, on the other hand, users\rquote  rights, ho
wever limited, are restricted to single national jurisdictions and cannot be shared by other blind people in the other countries. In short, property rights trump the user rights of the visually impaired. }{\insrsid14305830\charrsid7747762 
\par }{\f1\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734295}
4.11 How copyright presumptions trump translation possibilities \'85}{\b0\fs28\insrsid12615270\charrsid9309490  }{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 and limit the sharing of knowledge{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734295} }{
\b0\fs28\insrsid14305830\charrsid9309490 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs32\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 Translating written texts from one language to another \endash  or to a number of other languages \endash  is one of the most beneficial and simplest ways
 to share knowledge and for readers to learn about and learn from other cultures and other peoples. Copyright laws, however, become an important restriction on such translation possibilities. }{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  On the small number of books that are translated into Arabic each year for the Arab market, see Section 3.4}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par 
\par The essential legal barriers to translations of copyrighted work into other languages are the following: Under the traditional presumptions of copyright law, the first author of a work is given the \lquote exclusive right\rquote  to \lquote adapt\rquote 
 a work; the adaptation of a work includes the \lquote translation of a work\rquote  into another language.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 For the United Kingdom, see Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, Art. 16 (1) (e) and Art. 21 
\par (3), (I). }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  As publishers, rather than authors, own copyright in works, the publisher \lquote steps into the shoes\rquote  of the author and is given the legal power to authorise \endash  usually for a fee \endash 
 the translation of a work. Or the rights holder can refuse permission. This approach, found in most domestic copyright laws across the globe, mirrors what is stated in Article 8 of the Berne Convention.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  On the Berne Convention, see Glossary.}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  This legal power to prevent translation lasts for as long as the work is protected by copyright. 
\par 
\par The lengthy copyright term and the difficulties in making translation}{\insrsid9924030 s}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
 reinforce each other as access barriers. Significantly, even though an author may often assign (sell or give away without payment) copyright in his
/her work to a publisher and will no longer have any economic rights in the work, the duration of copyright held by a publisher will be determined solely with reference to the date that the author dies. Only after copyright has expired, which may be more 
than 100 years after a book or article is first published, can it be translated into other language}{\insrsid9924030 s}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
 without getting the permission of the owner of the work (in the first language). Furthermore, the translator of a work into a second language may also gain \lquote new\rquote 
 copyright in the translation he or she has done. As well, each translation into each specified language usually requires individual permission; sometimes permissions into more than one language are granted jointly. Moreover, sometimes the content of 
the actual translation must be approved, prior to publication, by the rights holder }{\insrsid9924030 of}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
 the first work. And, finally, in some jurisdictions (though not all), the author of the original work can object to the content of the translation on \lquote moral rights\rquote  grou
nds, that is, the translation is considered as so poor, in the opinion of the original author, that it amounts to a \lquote derogatory treatment.\rquote }{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 On moral rights, see Glossary. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par 
\par All of these legal rules and restrictions can block or delay translation into an
other language for decades and decades and is highly dependent on when an author dies and into what languages a book or article is translated. Each new translation begins a new copyright cycle. For example, if a book A written in language X (for example, 
an uncommon or local language) is translated into language Y (a more common language), book A might not be able to }{\insrsid9924030 be }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
translated into language Z from the copy available in language Y until more than 150 years after book A was first printed. 
\par 
\par The 1971 Appendix to the Berne Convention does make some very marginal changes for developing countries though, interestingly, a country such as South Africa is not designated as a \lquote developing country\rquote 
 under the provisions of the Berne Convention. However, arranging such translations under the Berne Ap}{\insrsid10557649 pendix creates high transaction}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  costs for publishers in the South}{\insrsid10557649 ,}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  and there are numerous}{\insrsid10557649  delays}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  and restrictions that remain. The Berne Appendix is, not surprisingly, seldom used. 
\par }{\insrsid7603589 
\par }{\insrsid10557649\charrsid9309490 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
The privileging of European languages 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par The translation problem is particularly pronounced in the South, especially in Asia and Africa where many countries are multi-lingual. This situation is in contrast to that found in most countries of the North where one or two languages are typically spok
en by the majority of people within a given country. This significant difference is an important one. Within Northern countries, translation into another language often means translation into a non-domestic language, that is, into a language spoken by peo
ple living in another country. This is somewhat similar to the situation that prevailed in 1886 when the French author Victor Hugo headed the movement to establish the Berne Convention; the French took a very \lquote hard line\rquote 
 on the translation question, while other nation}{\insrsid7217036 s, such as the Scandinavians who}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  were users}{\insrsid7217036 ,}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 wanted a more relaxed approach. Yet, the 1886 assumptions about translation still hold sway globally and are found both in the Berne Convention and national copyright legislation. But such assumptions simply don\rquote 
t hold true in the South. A wide range of languages are spoken and written in India and a significant number of African countries, for example, have more than ten languages. And in the production of materials across Africa, \'93local languages are
 ignored in favour of English, French or Portuguese\'94 as Colin Darch has written.}{\cs18\cf1\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar
\tx-1800\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  C. Darch \lquote 
The \lquote Alexandrian\rquote  Library, Digital Resources, and the Shrinking Public Domain: the Current Model for Delivering Academic Information in Africa\rquote  (Paper presented to the LIASA Conference on \lquote African Renaissance through Libraries
\rquote , Pretoria, 24-28 September 2001)}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  There are also few translations of works from one African language into another (e.g., from Bantu group languages of southern and eastern Africa into Igbo, Y
oruba or Hausa from Nigeria, or vice versa). Generally the right to make a translation must be individually acquired for each translation into a different language; it may be difficult, for example, to acquire the translation rights for all of the languag
es used in Nigeria or South Africa. The latter has some 200 languages and 11 official languages. In fact, a third of the world\rquote 
s languages are spoken in Africa and so it is not hard to imagine the problems trying to get works translated for educational purposes. 
\par 
\par The overall situation reinforces the inequality of languages, privileges European languages, and means that tens of millions of Africans and Asians are unable to get access to or read books and articles originally published in languages other than 
their own, even languages used within their own national borders. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
Translation restrictions mirror other restrictions 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 The legal barriers established for translations reveal and mirror many of the basic restrictive features of copyright: a) the original 
work becomes the exclusive preserve of the owner (who is often not the actual author) ; b) the work is propertised (meaning the subject of exclusive use like other commodities) for a very lengthy period of time; and c) there is no positive requirement or 
obligation to share or spread the knowledge }{\insrsid7217036 to}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 others, even if in this case, no negative consequences (e.g. the loss of a market) will result from the sale and distribution of a book that has not been translated into a local or national language. And in the case of translation, the \lquote others
\rquote  at stake are those who read materials originally written in another language. 
\par 
\par Lacking any obligation to share, the owner of the initial copyrighted work can simply sit back and wait with all of the \lquote trump cards\rquote . }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 On the one hand}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
, some day in the future the owner }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 may}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 want to have the work translated into another language and so he/she has no desire to create potential competition for a potential translation, which might bring in a fee. In other words, why share it today? }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
On the other hand}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 , those in the South (and so
metimes in countries in the North who read another language) will often not have sufficient funds to pay the additional fees demanded by the publisher of the work for translation purposes. Southern publishers trying to acquire translation rights often fac
e
 an unequal bargaining power situation (compared to large Northern publishers ) and may be trying to serve a small market composed of one language grouping; they can be regarded simply as a low-rent nuisance for the publishers of English, Spanish or Frenc
h publications. As one African publisher explained, acquiring translation rights from European publishers is a highly complicated process and \'93
in the few exceptional circumstances where European publishers grant rights to their African counterparts, this is usually done on harsh and unfavourable terms.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 See Story, CIPR Study, p. 49}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  In the end, cross-cultural and cross-language barriers to communication and understanding and learning from others }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
who happen to speak and write in another language}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  remain in place. 
\par 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
At the same time, it needs to be recognised that copyright restrictions are only one roadblock to the sharing of literature and other written texts among the people of the world. Cultural isolation and a sense of cultural superiority also play a ro
le. A prize-winning US translator, John E. Woods, has examined a list containing the number of }{\insrsid7217036 \lquote }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 serious}{\insrsid7217036 \rquote }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 books of literature ( in other words, cookbooks and tour guides and the like are excluded ) that are available in English in the US, the world\rquote s largest book market, as translations }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 from other languages}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 . The annual list of books seeking to win the annual PEN translation prize, which Woods suggests covers \'93most of the serious prose and poetry that gets published in a given year\'94 and which are translated i
nto English, does not exceed 200 to 250 titles a year. As a result, he continues, \'93
every year we Americans are getting no more than about 200 peeks a year over the literary fence into the outside world. Then, if you start looking at the individual language
s, about 60 per cent are translated from five languages, and in this order: French, Spanish, German, Russian, Italian. So that\rquote s about 120 titles. All of the rest of the world\rquote s languages get the other 80.\'94}{
\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  John E. Woods, San Diego Weekly Reader, no. 32 (August 14, 1997), 20-22. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734296}4.12 Three }{
\b0\fs28\insrsid7605862 l}{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 egal }{\b0\fs28\insrsid7605862 q}{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 uestions }{\b0\fs28\insrsid7605862 r}{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 elated to }{\b0\fs28\insrsid7605862 
a}{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 ccess{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734296} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par As this section of the dossier has already detailed, domestic copyright laws and international copyright conventions erect a wide range of restrictions that severely limit the use of copyrighted work across the globe. \lquote Keep out\rquote 
 signs are erected everywhere. The owner of the copyrighted work is given a legally-recognised property right over the work, whether a book, a film, an artistic work, a television br
oadcast or a myriad of other types of literary, musical and artistic expressions. But such property rights are }{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 not absolute}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
 or total. If they were, a student writing an essay could, for example, }{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 not quote a single sentence}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  from a copyrighted book in her or
 his essay without the prior permission of the owner of the copyright. In other words, establishing absolute rights to exclude all uses would be an absurdity. 
\par 
\par Users do possess certain narrowly-drawn rights to use copyrighted works. Legally, such access and use rights are called \lquote limitations and exceptions\rquote 
 to copyright; the highly questionable assumption behind such terminology is that copyright and its many restrictions are the \lquote normal\rquote  and \lquote natural\rquote  \endash  and preferred \endash 
 state of affairs and that the right of the public to freely use such works is an aberration that needs to be strictly controlled. In any event, there are three legal questions that need further ana
lysis in looking at access questions in the South: one involves an exception, a second is concerned with a legal agreement created especially for developing countries more than 30 years ago, and the third is a \lquote test\rquote 
 for whether a use is permitted. These are respectively: a) fair use/ fair dealing; b) the 1971 Appendix to the Berne Convention; 3) the Berne Convention \lquote  three-step\rquote 
 test. Here we provide solely a brief treatment that covers only the high points (and low points) of what are quite complicated legal questions. What is notable is how each of these provisions has been given }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7217036 
far more importance than it deserves}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  as a method and/or tactic for overcoming the access and use requirements for peoples of the South. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid14836562 
a) The question of fair use/ fair dealing 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs28\insrsid7603589 
\par }{\insrsid7603589 \lquote Fair use\rquote 
 is an important part of US copyright doctrine (and also used in the copyright laws in the Philippines) that allows a user to legally access and use limited sections of copyrighted works without the permission of the copyright owner and some
times without the payment of any fees. In most other parts of the world, that is, almost every country except the United States and the Philippines, this right is labelled \lquote fair dealing.\rquote  (\lquote Fair use\rquote  and \lquote fair dealing
\rquote  do not, in practice, operate in exactly the same fashion ; the statutes and case law that deal with \lquote fair dealing\rquote  are, in general, }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid11997803 not}{\insrsid7603589  as sympathetic to users\rquote 
 rights as those covering \lquote fair use.\rquote }{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid12796983 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar
\tx916\tx1832\tx2748\tx3664\tx4580\tx5496\tx6412\tx7328\tx8244\tx9160\tx10076\tx10992\tx11908\tx12824\tx13740\tx14656\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  To read more on the concepts of \lquote fair use\rquote  and \lquote fair dealing\rquote , see }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/" }}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://en.wikipedia.org}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid12796983 )}{\insrsid7603589 
 The absolute ownership rights of the owner are said to be overridden by other interests, such as the public interest in making works much more widely available. It is the \lquote fair use\rquote / \lquote fair dealing\rquote 
 exception, for example, that permits a student to quote passages from a copyrighted work in her or his essay without getting permission from the owner. If a use falls within such guidelines, which are not clear-cut and can depend on, for example,
 why the copyrighted work is being used and how much is being used, the user may be provided with a good defence if the owner decides to launch a copyright infringement action. }{\insrsid14305830 
\par }{\insrsid7603589 
\par What is the situation in countries of the South regarding \lquote fair use\rquote  and \lquote fair dealing\rquote  provisions? There is no single pattern. While some countries do have \lquote fair dealing\rquote  provisions that are basically similar }{
\insrsid7217036 to}{\insrsid7603589  those in the developed world, a number of countries do not have any statutory provisions that expressly permit \lquote fair dealing\rquote  (or \lquote fair use.\rquote 
) The reason? Until quite recently, the copyright statutes in numbers of countries across Africa and Asia were essentially colonial transplants drafted by Europeans or their colonial underlings. Such statutes were often carbon copies o
f those that existed in the homeland of their then (or previous) colonial master, whether England or France or Spain. If such statutes supposedly \lquote worked\rquote 
 in England, then they were considered equally valid in countries such as Kenya, even though the conditions were radically different. Yet, in some African and Asian statutes, the \lquote fair dealing\rquote 
 clauses were, curiously, omitted. (Or perhaps not so curiously, as \lquote fair dealing\rquote  would at least have given some minimal rights to users when accessing works which,
 in most cases, would have been owned by publishers and other companies based in Europe.) Significantly, the leading global copyright agreement, the Berne Convention, does }{\i\insrsid7603589 not}{\insrsid7603589 
 require that members draft domestic copyright laws which mandate \lquote fair dealing\rquote  (or \lquote fair use\rquote ) provisions. In an era when the call to \lquote harmonise copyright laws\rquote 
 is growing increasingly shrill and when the rights of owners are becoming strengthened, protected, enforced -and more and more harmonised \endash  through international agreements such as the WIPO Copyright Treaty 1996, the call for \lquote 
harmonising users\rquote  rights\rquote  across the globe is seldom heard, let alone acted upon. 
\par 
\par So a call for the creation of \lquote fair dealing\rquote  (or \lquote fair use\rquote ) laws in every country in the world is certainly a demand worth supporting. And the best or broadest users\rquote 
 rights established anywhere in the world should become the global harmonised standard. Such provisions are particularly needed in the South where libraries are generally funded at much lower levels, where a
ccess to printed works is more tenuous and where the needs are especially pressing. Yet, at the same time \endash  }{\i\insrsid7603589 and this point cannot be made strongly enough \endash  }{\insrsid7603589 the transplanting of Northern \lquote 
fair dealing\rquote  (or \lquote fair use\rquote ) laws and standards to the South is }{\i\insrsid7603589 not}{\insrsid7603589  
the essential or principle solution to the information and knowledge needs, especially technical knowledge needs, of countries of the South and both their students and their teachers. 
\par 
\par Organisations which advocate the transplanting of US \lquote fair use\rquote  standards as the main access solution simply do not appreciate the \lquote on the ground\rquote 
 situation in the South. Looking across the full spectrum of the education field provides numerous instances of where a \lquote fair dealing\rquote /\rquote fair use\rquote  approach simply does not fit the bill. Four brief examples should suffice here: 

\par 
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;(22140,-372);(405,-372)}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fBehindDocument}{\sv 1}}{\sp{\sn fLayoutInCell}{\sv 1}}{\shptxt \pard\plain \qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562 \'93I've spent the past several years trying to negotiate with publishers for uses. We also have access to fair dealing, under the usual terms, \lquote 
a reasonable portion\rquote , \lquote no impact on commercial use.\rquote  But no one knows what this means and no one knows what's}{\f66\insrsid8483307  }{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562 
reasonable. Only the courts know and litigation is too expensive. One technical question on labour law that we litigated cost us 5,000,000 Rand. As educational sector, we don't have the kind of money needed to
 challenge the publishers. (We) need (an) interpretation of (the) legislation. Publishers say they have taken a reasonable position. They have no problem with individual students and teachers making copies. But when an institution makes copies, even of a 
single page, they must pay royalties. For instance, English literature professor making copies of a single poem from an anthology of 600 of them. There is no fair dealing from the standpoint of administrative teaching.\'94 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562 
\par }\pard \qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562 Professor Julien Hofman, Commonweal
th of Learning, Department of Commercial Law, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa. Speaker, Information Meeting on Educational Content and Copyright in the Digital Age, World Intellectual Property}{\f66\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562  }
{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562 Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. 21 November 2005 }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562  HYPERLINK "http://www.eff.org/deeplinks/archives/004193.php" \\l "004193" }}{\fldrslt {
\cs19\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562 http://www.eff.org/deeplinks/archives/004193.php#004193}}}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}}{\shprslt{\*\do\dobxcolumn\dobypara\dodhgt16\dptxbx\dptxlrtb{\dptxbxtext\pard\plain \qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562 \'93I've spent the past several years trying to negotiate with publishers for uses. We also have access to fair dealing, under the usual terms, \lquote a reasonable portion\rquote , \lquote no impact on commercial use.
\rquote  But no one knows what this means and no one knows what's}{\f66\insrsid8483307  }{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562 
reasonable. Only the courts know and litigation is too expensive. One technical question on labour law that we litigated cost us 5,000,000 Rand. As educational sector, we don't have the kind of money needed to
 challenge the publishers. (We) need (an) interpretation of (the) legislation. Publishers say they have taken a reasonable position. They have no problem with individual students and teachers making copies. But when an institution makes copies, even of a 
single page, they must pay royalties. For instance, English literature professor making copies of a single poem from an anthology of 600 of them. There is no fair dealing from the standpoint of administrative teaching.\'94 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562 
\par }\pard \qr \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562 Professor Julien Hofman, Commonweal
th of Learning, Department of Commercial Law, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa. Speaker, Information Meeting on Educational Content and Copyright in the Digital Age, World Intellectual Property}{\f66\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562  }
{\i\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562 Organization, Geneva, Switzerland. 21 November 2005 }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562  HYPERLINK "http://www.eff.org/deeplinks/archives/004193.php" \\l "004193" }}{\fldrslt {
\cs19\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562 http://www.eff.org/deeplinks/archives/004193.php#004193}}}{\f66\insrsid8483307\charrsid14836562 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid8483307 
\par }}\dpx3240\dpy242\dpxsize5040\dpysize6683\dpfillfgcr255\dpfillfgcg255\dpfillfgcb255\dpfillbgcr255\dpfillbgcg255\dpfillbgcb255\dpfillpat1\dplinew15\dplinecor0\dplinecog0\dplinecob0}}}}{\insrsid7603589 
First, the amount of material that can be used legally (that is, using the \lquote fair use\rquote 
 exemptions) from any given copyrighted book or article is pitifully small. A person trying to learn to read on a literacy programme in the South cannot learn to read if she or he can only have access to the odd sentence or a couple of paragraphs; this is
 the amount which typically is allowed at no charge under a \lquote fair use\rquote / \lquote fair dealing\rquote  standard. Rather, they need access at no charge to complete books, many books, and other materials; \lquote fair dealing\rquote / \lquote 
fair use\rquote  approaches forbid this. How can this be \lquote fair\rquote  to persons who are illiterate? 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid7603589 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls33\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid14836562 {
\insrsid7603589 Second, \lquote fair dealing\rquote / \lquote fair use\rquote  statutes typically only permit use of copyrighted material for individual \'93research\'94 and \'93private study.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tx916\tx1832\tx2748\tx3664\tx4580\tx5496\tx6412\tx7328\tx8244\tx9160\tx10076\tx10992\tx11908\tx12824\tx13740\tx14656\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  For the restrictions in the United Kingdom, see the UK Copyright, Designs and Patent Act, 1988, Sec. 29. }}
}{\insrsid7603589  Such laws typically do not cover the provision of course and study packs in schools, even though each student receiving such a course pack will, in most cases, be engaged in \'93private study\'94
 when she or he is reading and using the pack. Again, \lquote fair use\rquote  is of no value. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid7603589 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls33\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid14836562 {
\insrsid7603589 Third, as we saw above in the case of the Colombian academic,}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar
\tx916\tx1832\tx2748\tx3664\tx4580\tx5496\tx6412\tx7328\tx8244\tx9160\tx10076\tx10992\tx11908\tx12824\tx13740\tx14656\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  See Section 4.7 }}}{\insrsid7603589  the \lquote fair dealing\rquote /\rquote fair use\rquote  approach may allow
 an academic in the South to quote a few passages from copyrighted works in their own research. But this orientation creates all sorts of hurdles to accessing many printed materials in the first place. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid14836562 {\insrsid7603589 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls33\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid14836562 {
\insrsid7603589 Fourth, as Professor Julien Hoffman of South Africa explains }{\insrsid14231777 above}{\insrsid7603589 , \lquote fair dealing\rquote /\rquote fair use\rquote 
 standards are very difficult to understand; not every primary school teacher is a copyright expert and every use that exceeds such \lquote fair dealing\rquote / \lquote fair use\rquote  limits means that copyright royalties must be paid to 
publishers. If some university students in rich countries such as the United States and Britain justifiably complain about the costs of their educational materials (costs that are principally, though not exclusively, the result of copyright restrictions),
 the complaints of students from countries such as Mexico, Malawi or the Philippines are even more valid. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 
\par In other words, importing Northern \lquote fair dealing\rquote / \lquote fair use\rquote  standards to the South is simply not \lquote fair.\rquote  
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid10763768 
b) The Appendix to the Berne Convention 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\f1\fs28\insrsid7603589 
\par }{\insrsid7603589 
The Berne Convention is the leading international agreement that governs copyright relations between countries as well as dictating a number of requirements that must be inserted into the domestic copyright statutes of all member states. First drafted in
 1886 and amended, mostly in minor and technical ways, a number of times since then, the Berne Convention is an agreement or treaty that was written by developed countries and represents the approaches to copyright law that predominate in these countries.
 As more and more colonies and dependent countries in the South gained their independence in the 1950\rquote 
s and 1960s, the failings, indeed the oppressiveness, of the Berne Convention became more and more obvious to countries of the South. It simply did not meet or contribute to their nation-building requirements. 
\par 
\par A Southern-led revolt in the 1960s against the presumptions and ideology of the Berne Convention created what some commentators called an \'93international crisis of copyright.\'94 The wider reasons for th
is important revolt, its background, and its demands are detailed elsewhere in the dossier;}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar
\tx916\tx1832\tx2748\tx3664\tx4580\tx5496\tx6412\tx7328\tx8244\tx9160\tx10076\tx10992\tx11908\tx12824\tx13740\tx14656\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 For more on this period of conflict, see \lquote The late 1950s and 1960s: the Southern revolt against copyright\rquote  in Section 5.2 of the dossier. }}}{
\insrsid7603589  here in this section on
 access questions, we will do a brief analysis of the single international agreement that resulted from this crisis, namely the 1971 Appendix to the Berne Convention. (This Appendix, which is part of Article 21 of the Berne Convention, is now included in 
the 1994 TRIPS Agreement under Article 9.) Although the Berne Appendix is labelled as a set of \'93special provisions regarding developing countries,\'94
 it is, in reality, a distraction from the real struggle to win better access rights for the South; it is a mere table scrap, a tactical cul de sac, a legal nightmare. The \lquote special\rquote  situation found across many parts of the South is }{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid13372117 not}{\insrsid7603589  addressed and, not surprisingly, its provisions have seldom been used by countries of the South in the 35 years since it came into
 existence. A leading commentator on the Berne Convention, Professor Sam Ricketson of Australia \endash  and someone who is hardly a radical copyright activist \endash  has concluded that the Appendix has brought \'93no obvious benefits\'94
 to developing countries. 
\par 
\par The esse
ntial purpose of the Appendix was to make it easier for publishers in the South to get authorisation to publish materials already published in the more developed North. For example, translation of works by Southern publishers for teaching and research pur
p
oses is made somewhat easier to undertake if a Northern publisher decides not to have their works (originally published in European languages such as French or English) translated into the languages found across Africa and Asia. But, not only do few publi
shers in the South even know about the 1971 Appendix }{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar
\tx916\tx1832\tx2748\tx3664\tx4580\tx5496\tx6412\tx7328\tx8244\tx9160\tx10076\tx10992\tx11908\tx12824\tx13740\tx14656\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 In an interview conducted in 2001, the Ghanaian president of the African Publishers Council said he had only learned recently of the existence of the Appendix. See Story, CIPR Study, pg. 51. }}}{\insrsid7603589 
, the Appendix reinforces the idea that Southern publishers should be the one (and only)}{\insrsid7217036  }{\insrsid7603589 
conduit for the reprographic copying and the production of materials and their delivery in the South. (Of course, many Northern-based publishing giants, such as Oxford University Press and Reid-Elsevier, also have a significant market share }{
\insrsid7217036 of}{\insrsid7603589  the Southern textbook market.) In the case of education, for example, the Appendix gives }{\i\insrsid7603589 no additional rights whatsoever}{\insrsid7603589  to teachers who may want to }{\i\insrsid7603589 
independently}{\insrsid7603589  access and distr
ibute materials for the use of their students with the assistance of two of the more common communication tools: a) a photocopier or low-priced duplicator or offset press; b) a computer and the Internet. So not only is the Appendix a technological anachro
nism which reinforces the privileged, in fact exclusive, position of publishers, Northern and Southern, in deciding upon the use of information and knowledge. It does nothing to alleviate other pressing access }{\insrsid7217036 issues }{\insrsid7603589 
documented earlier in this section of the dossier, such as the use of the fields of distance learning, in libraries, or in research. For the South, it is a fatally flawed copyright agreement. 
\par }{\b\f1\fs28\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid10763768 
c) The Berne Convention \lquote Three-Step\rquote  Test
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\f1\fs28\insrsid7603589 
\par }{\insrsid7603589 
One of the current and ongoing controversies about the Berne Convention (and international copyright law more generally) involves the question of real (and potential) limitations and exceptions to copyright that might, for example, allow much freer use of
 copyright}{\insrsid7217036 ed works. The Berne Convention \lquote }{\insrsid7603589 three-step}{\insrsid7217036  test\rquote  }{\insrsid7603589 
determines whether such exceptions will be permitted; in other words, it establishes in what circumstances the exclusive rights granted by law to right}{\insrsid7217036 s}{\insrsid7603589  holders under national copyright laws might b
e constrained and over-ridden by competing interests, such as the right to education. }{\cs18\lang9\langfe2057\super\langnp9\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar
\tx916\tx1832\tx2748\tx3664\tx4580\tx5496\tx6412\tx7328\tx8244\tx9160\tx10076\tx10992\tx11908\tx12824\tx13740\tx14656\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307  The \lquote three step\rquote }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  test was }{\fs20\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
first applied to the exclusive right of reproduction by Article 9(2) of the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Work
s in 1967. Since then, it has been transplanted and extended into the Article 13 of the TRIPs Agreement, Article 10 of the 1996 WIPO Copyright Treaty, and Article 16 of the 1996 WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty.
\par }\pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tx916\tx1832\tx2748\tx3664\tx4580\tx5496\tx6412\tx7328\tx8244\tx9160\tx10076\tx10992\tx11908\tx12824\tx13740\tx14656\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 For more on the \'93three-step test\'94, see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berne_three-step_test.}}}{
\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7603589 
\par 
\par The test, similar to that used in copyright questions, is included in Article 13 of }{\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7217036 the TRIPS agreement. It reads:}{\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7603589 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid10763768 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid10763768 
Members shall confine limitations and exceptions to exclusive rights to certain special cases which do not conflict with a normal exploitation of the work and do not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the rights holder. 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\i\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7603589\charrsid5047363 
\par }{\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7603589 To date, there has been only }{\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7217036 one }{\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7603589 case
 before a World Trade Organisation dispute settlement panel that can help to give us a better idea of exactly what these words mean in practice and whether the \lquote three step\rquote 
 might be a legal way to pry open existing access and use restrictions.}{\cs18\lang9\langfe2057\super\langnp9\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar
\tx916\tx1832\tx2748\tx3664\tx4580\tx5496\tx6412\tx7328\tx8244\tx9160\tx10076\tx10992\tx11908\tx12824\tx13740\tx14656\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  The case involved US}{\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 copyright exemptions allowing restaurants, bars, and shops to play radio and TV broadcasts without paying licensing fees; the exemption was included as a rider to the 1998 Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act.}}}{
\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7603589  We do know that the test applies cumulatively; in other words, for a particular limitation to be permitted, all three prongs of the test must be satisfied. We also know that the \lquote three-step\rquote 
 test may become an important site of future conflict. If any nation attempts to reduce the scope
 of its own domestic copyright law by using this test, such states are likely to face severe legal pressures if the World Trade Organisation does not also agree that such domestic modifications comply with the test. 
\par }\pard\plain \s71\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f2\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f0\fs24\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\tx916\tx1832\tx2748\tx3664\tx4580\tx5496\tx6412\tx7328\tx8244\tx9160\tx10076\tx10992\tx11908\tx12824\tx13740\tx14656\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 More generally we need to ask: is the Berne \lquote three-step\rquote  test \endash  on its own terms \endash 
 a valuable and viable test to use for establishing copyright exemptions if we wish far greater access possibilities? Might it, for example, be a legal tool that could be of use in a situation highlighted earlier
 in the dossier, namely the more than 200 million blind and visually-impaired people in the world who can't access printed materials, in part because of the exclusive reproduction rights given to copyright owners which prevent the unauthorised changing/co
nverting of formats? There is no hint to date that the \lquote three-step\rquote  test would regard their access needs as \lquote special\rquote  \endash  in fact, the reverse is true \endash  and hence they would be required to act \lquote normally
\rquote ; in other words, they could not change formats to make such books accessible for themselves. In the same vein, there is not a hint that the pressing need to get cheap access to books for a literacy programme in the South would, under the \lquote 
three-step\rquote  test, be able to trump other \lquote rights\rquote , namely, the property rights of publishers, normal money-making practices, \lquote the right\rquote 
 of collecting societies to collect revenues. And so this test provides not a single step, let alone three, along the road to better access. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid10763768 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734297}4.13 Copyright and cultural d
omination by the North: a long-standing conflict that is getting s}{\b0\fs28\insrsid10763768\charrsid9309490 harper}{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 {\*\bkmkend _Toc135734297}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 It was not particularly shocking when a newspaper reported in December 2005 that the United States government had established \'93a (US) $300 million Pentagon psychological warfare operation\'94 which \'93
includes plans for placing pro-American messages in foreign media outlets without disclosing the U.S. government as the source.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Matt Kelley,
\rquote  Pentagon rolls out stealth PR\rquote , USA Today, 13 December 2005. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  The details of this e
xpensive campaign, which has included ghost-written articles, advertisements, radio spots, television programmes, and what are labelled \lquote public service announcements\rquote 
, were first exposed on the eve of elections in Iraq; it is a campaign that is being taken up as part of US President George Bush\rquote s high-profile \lquote war on terror\rquote . 
\par 
\par Such news is hardly surprising because the United States has been spreading its dominant ideology and world\endash view to the countries of the South for decades, indeed for more than a cen
tury. It is, of course, not the first or the only imperial power to believe in its own \lquote civilizing mission\rquote  ; the British considered they had the same duty in the \lquote glory days\rquote 
 of their own empire upon which, they repeatedly bragged, \lquote the sun never set.\rquote  (The French, the Spanish and other European powers also operated across their own colon}{\insrsid7605862 ial terrains in many similar \endash  }{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 and some dissimilar}{\insrsid7605862  \endash  }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 ways.) And the rationale for the current \lquote civilising mission\rquote ? To maintain its dominant position in this era of global
isation, United States must do more than simply profit from the strongest and most rapacious economy in the world or operate military and naval bases in 130 countries. Information domination is required as well. As an official in the former Clinton admini
stration explained \'93\'85 for the United States, a central objective of an Information Age foreign policy must be to win the battle of the world\rquote s information flows, dominating the airwaves as Great Britain once ruled the seas.\'94 }{
\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Foreign Policy, no. 107, (Summer 1997); 38-53 Cited by Herbert I. Schiller, Living in the Number One Country, (Seven Stories Press, New York, 2000).}}}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  
\par 
\par Commentators have explained how, on the US \lquote home front\rquote , these information flows have been essential in shaping the political, social and economic attitudes of the American people. Those \'93
who are not permanent residents of the West on a day-to-day basis are always struck by the incredible saturation by the dominant media \endash  a virtual carpet bombing of the public consciousness.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Samir Amin, \lquote The Future of Socialism\rquote , Monthly Review 42, 1990, p. 29. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  In the age of the Internet, this \lquote carpet bombing\rquote  has gone digital \endash 
 and international- and the South is more and more directly in the drop zone for the US-based information/ideology offensive. 
\par 
\par Here is how a leading US newspaper described the situation a decade ago in one edition devoted to the theme \lquote How the World Sees Us\rquote : 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid7747762 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
The crumbling of the Berlin Wall in 1989 marked the beginning of America\rquote s ascendancy to a new level of world domination. No traveller can miss the evidence abroad. In music, television and the movies, America\rquote 
s influence is approaching what advertising people call \lquote market saturation.\rquote  The emblems of American mass culture have infiltrated the remotest outposts:
 the Coca-Cola is on the street corners from Kazakhstan to Bora-Bora; CNN emanates from television sets in more than 200 countries; there are more 7-Eleven stores in Japan than in the United States. Our technology \endash 
 computerized weapon systems, medical scanners, the Internet \endash  sets the standard to which developing countries aspire. }{\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 The New York Times Magazine, June 7, 1997, p. 37. }}}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par You may be asking, \'93yes, all of this may be true (or simply wishful boasting by a US newspaper), but what has this got to do with copyright and access barriers to knowledge?\'94
 In fact, a great deal. While this dossier documents some of the serious barriers to knowledge that exist and argues \endash  sometimes quite passionately \endash  that the current copyright regime is one (though not t
he only) cause of these access restrictions, we also suggest that an unrestricted \lquote free flow\rquote  of such knowledge, whether copyrighted or not, is not the answer for the South. 
\par 
\par Such a supposed \lquote free flow\rquote  raises a whole number of other question}{\insrsid7217036 s}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  including: Is any \lquote flow\rquote  actually free? What ideology and biases are obvious \endash  or encoded \endash 
 in such knowledge flows, including that available on the Internet? Are some countries, such as the countries of Europe and North America (and a few others), actually the source of most of the world \lquote knowledge\rquote 
 that needs to be circulated and spread? Why is such a high percentage of the knowledge flow one-way, that is, from North to South? Doesn\rquote t the North have lots of things to learn from the South? We certainly think it does.
 And which voices from the North (and the South) actually get a chance to speak and be transmitted? 
\par 
\par At the same time, what are the best ways to improve the global sharing of knowledge, to dampen down the reach of the McGlobalisation propaganda machine, a
nd to ensure that a greater diversity of voices is heard in the South? Is it to proclaim the superiority of certain cultures, races, and, countries in the South? Surely this cannot be the answer. Is the solution to launch campaigns against \lquote 
decadent Western music\rquote  and forbid such music from being played by radio station or in public performances? And should it be governments in the South which are given the sole prerogative as to what knowledge can be exchanged and \lquote imported
\rquote  by their residents? We think this approach would only add to the democratic deficit. 
\par 
\par These are only a few of the questions related to the dangers of cultural domination or \lquote cultural imperialism\rquote , as it is sometimes ca}{\insrsid7217036 lled. And there is certainly }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
not the space here to even begin expanding on these questions or attempting to answer them. Yet, to talk about providing greater \lquote access to knowledge\rquote  and lowering copyright barriers without also talking about \lquote what knowledge\rquote 
 from \lquote where\rquote  and promoting \lquote which values and which ideologies\rquote  is to miss much of the point. In other words, copyright and content must both be examined. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 Behind the \lquote 
free flow of information\rquote  approach 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7747762 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par One question that we can take up here is: what are the objectives and methods of the US-led campaign for a global \lquote free flow of information\rquote 
? What follows is a series of quotations from a number of leading US government officials, spokesmen, and commentators over the past five decades who have endorsed, explained and led this continuing \'93free flow of information\'94 orientation. }{
\cs18\b\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 All the quotations used have been collected by the US communications theorist Herbert Schiller and are available in his book, Living in the Number One Country, (Seven Stories Press, New York, 2000).}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 a)\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls35\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 John Foster Dulles, former US Secretary of State in the 19}{\insrsid3483556 5}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 0}{
\insrsid3483556 \rquote }{\insrsid7217036 s,}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777  on the eve of the \lquote Cold War\rquote : 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\insrsid10763768\charrsid14231777 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid10763768 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \'93
If I were to be granted one point of foreign policy and no other, I would make it the free flow of information.\'94}{\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Cited in a 1946 speech John S. Knight, \lquote World Freedom of Information\rquote  and published in Vital Speeches, 1946, 472-77. }}}{\i\insrsid14305830\charrsid14231777 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 b)\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls35\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 US Assistant Secretary of State William Benton in 1946: 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\insrsid10763768\charrsid14231777 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid10763768 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \'93
The State Department plans to do everything within its power along the political or diplomatic lin
es to help break down the artificial barriers to the expansion of private American news agencies, magazines, motion pictures, and other media of communication \'85 Freedom of the press- and freedom of exchange of information generally \endash 
 is an integral part of our foreign policy.\'94 }{\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Department of State Bulletin 14, no. 344 (1946): 160 }}}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 c)\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls35\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 US academic Daniel Lerner writing in the 1960\rquote s as the \'93Third World\'94 was emerging: 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\insrsid10763768\charrsid14231777 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid10763768 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \'93
The long era of imperialism (subordination) is recently ended; the campaign for international development (equalization) has just begun. In the new process, international communication operates }{\i\insrsid3483556 o}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 
n behalf of different policy purposes under different socioeconomic conditions by different psychopolitical means. Indeed, in the transition from i
mperialism to international development, there has been a fundamental change in the role of communication. Under the new conditions of globalism, it has largely replaced the coercive means by which colonial territories were seized and held\'85
The persuasive transmission of enlightenment is the modern paradigm of international communication.\'94}{\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Daniel Lerner, \lquote Managing Communication for Modernization: The Development Construct.\rquote  in Politics, Personality and Social Change in the Twentieth Century: Essays in Hono
r of Harold D. Lasswell, ed. Arnold A. Rogow (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1979). 182. }}}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777  
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 d)\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls35\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 US writer and strategist Richard N. Ha}{\insrsid3483556 u}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 ss in}{
\insrsid10763768\charrsid14231777  }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 1997: 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\insrsid10763768\charrsid14231777 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid10763768 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \'93
The aim of American foreign policy is to work with other like-minde}{\i\insrsid3483556 d}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777  actors to \lquote improve\rquote 
 the market place, to increase compliance with basic norms, by choice if possible, by necessity, i.e. coercion, if need be. At the core, regulation [of the international system] is an imperial doctrine in that it seeks to promote a set of standards we end
orse\'85.\'94}{\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Richard N. Hauss, The Reluctant Sheriff (New York; Council on Foreign Relations, 1997), 70. }}}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 e)\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls35\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 US commentator Irving Kristol in 1997: 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\insrsid10763768\charrsid14231777 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid10763768 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \'93Our missionaries live in Hollywood.\'94
}{\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307  Irving Kristol, \lquote The Emerging American Imperium\rquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Wall Street Journal, August 18, 1997, A-14 }}}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 

\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 f)\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls35\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 US academics Joseph S. Nye Jr. and William A. Owens in 1996:
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\insrsid10763768\charrsid14231777 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid10763768 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \'93
Just as nuclear dominance was the key to coalition leadership in the old era, information dominance will be the key in the information age\'85Information is the new c
oin of the international realm, and the United States is better positioned than any other country to multiply the potency of its hard and soft power resources through information.\'94 }{\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Joseph S.}{\insrsid8483307  Nye Jr. and William A. Owens, \lquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 America\rquote s Information Edge}{\insrsid8483307 \rquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Foreign Affairs, March /April 1996, 20-36. . }}}{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777  
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 g)\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls35\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 David Rothkopf, former Clinton administration official and former managing director }{\insrsid10763768\charrsid14231777 
of Kissinger Associates in 1997:}{\insrsid14305830\charrsid14231777 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid10763768 {\insrsid10763768\charrsid14231777 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid10763768 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \'93
it is in the economic and political interests of the United States to ensure that if the
 world is moving to a common language, it is English; that if the world is moving towards a common telecommunications, safety, and quality standards, they be American; that if the world is becoming linked by television, radio, and music, the programming b
e American; and that if common values are being developed, they be values with which Americans are comfortable.\'94 }{\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 David Rothkopf, \lquote In Praise of Cultural Imperialism?\rquote , Foreign Policy, no. 107, ( Summer 1997) ; 38-53}}}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777  }{\i\insrsid3282187\charrsid14231777 
\par \page }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 
\par }{\insrsid10763768\charrsid14231777 
\par \page }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid14231777 
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\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid9309490 \b\i\f1\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734298}SECTION }{
\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid4936081\charrsid9309490 5}{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  \endash  RESISTANCE FROM THE SOUTH TO THE GLOBAL COPYRIGHT}{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid5375122\charrsid9309490  SYSTEM}{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734298}
\par }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid9309490 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
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\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid4936081 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\lang7177\langfe1033\langnp7177\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734299}
5.1 Introduction{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734299} 
\par }\pard\plain \s161\ql \fi460\li0\ri0\sb20\sl-260\slmult0\nowidctlpar\noline\tx0\tx460\tx620\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f182\fs22\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 

\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
Countries of the South have not recently learnt about the problems associated with copyright; resistance has been present for some time. Resistance from the global South can, and does, take many forms. Resistance happens within the framework of copyright 
a
nd intellectual property. For example, the General Public License (GPL) turns copyright on its head by providing incentives to share ideas instead of own them, but the GPL resists copyright from within the paradigm of copyright. A second way of looking at
 
resistance is to see the system of copyright as a system of rights which legitimates a type of violence as people round the world are forced to adhere to the law. Thus, one should ask: how do you go outside copyright and intellectual property rights? Thir
d, given the commonalities with other traditions, it is important to consider building alliances with other areas of resistance to IPRs. This \lquote environmentalism for the net,\rquote 
 as described by James Boyle, seeks to formulate a diverse movement working towards 
the same cause. Just as the early days of the environmental movement saw people from different paths of life coming together for a single cause, it is possible to conceptualise resistance to copyright along similar lines. One possibility is to think about
 intellectual property in the context of the International Information Order as a way of building convergence around the topic. 
\par 
\par Though TRIPS is not the only intellectual property regime impacting }{\insrsid3483556 on }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 the global South, it has served as a focal point for res
istance because it clarified the international dimensions of intellectual property and created the conditions for resistance along north/south lines. The TRIPS+ agenda reinforced the view from the South that linking intellectual property to \lquote 
free trade\rquote  means free trade for the global north and continued poverty for the global south. Thus, ten years after its inception, there are numerous streams of resistance to TRIPS and to copyright specifically. 
\par 
\par First, governments in the global south have resisted the
 TRIPS agreement since the earliest negotiations over the terms of the agreement and have sought to mitigate the most damaging aspects of the agreement (with little success). Second, social movements resisting different aspects of the TRIPS agreement have
 
emerged to raise awareness of how the agreement threatens indigenous culture and creative work and the relationship of TRIPS to the larger agenda of neo-liberal trade harmonization. Third, a growing number of scholars in both the north and the south seek 
t
o develop alternative theoretical conceptions to intellectual property. For example, scholars and activists emphasizing the value of the public domain as an alternative to copyright are seeking to provide a different starting point for understanding creat
i
ve work. Furthermore, developing notions of collective authorship and de-emphasising the role of original creation are conceptual moves important to seeking alternatives to the western copyright model. Fourth, given the fact that most people do not know, 
o
r understand, the complexity of copyright law, sharing cultural products freely becomes a form of resistance (and civil disobedience). Fifth, resistance also takes the form of using the language of intellectual property against those who seek to benefit f
rom it. For example, extending the concept of intellectual property to traditional knowledge usurps the language of property and flips the claim of piracy to account for the actions of Westerners who appropriate freely from \lquote the heritage of mankind
\rquote  but claim their own \lquote original authorship\rquote  is the result. 
\par 
\par Some of these forms of resistance have been covered by other propositions in the dossier. For example, discussing the cultural underpinnings of copyright and the importance of the public domain can be see
n as forms of resistance. In this section we will focus more specifically on direct forms of resistance. However, it is important to acknowledge that resistance will vary given the different approaches countries within the global South may take towards co
pyright. Within the \lquote global South\rquote 
 category are developing countries that are signatories to the TRIPS agreement and members of the WTO; indigenous actors within the global South who define their concerns in terms of traditional knowledge and the preservati
on of traditional culture and not in terms of state interests; and, finally, there are indigenous groups within developed states. In other words, the state may not necessarily represent the interests of indigenous actors and developing states may have dif
ferent agendas than those of indigenous rights activists. Furthermore, not all states in the global South speak with a unified voice. This makes for a variety of different platforms.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid4936081 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\lang7177\langfe1033\langnp7177\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734300}
5.2 A brief history of Southern resistance to copyright\rquote s laws and assumptions{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734300} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5375122 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\lang7177\langfe2057\langnp7177\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par }{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 This section focuses on three pre-1990 periods, namely the establishment of the Berne Convention in 1886 and in particular, the initial \hich\f56 \lquote \loch\f56 coverage
\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56  of this Convention in countries of the South, many of them then colonies an\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
d not politically independent countries; the late 1950s and 1960s when many countries became independent and when their dissatisfaction with the inequities of the global copyright system lead to what has been called \hich\f56 \lquote \loch\f56 
the international crisis of copyright\hich\f56 \rquote \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 ;\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  and the late 1970s and early 1980s when a number of leading countries in the South proposed a \hich\f56 \lquote \loch\f56 
New World Information and Communications Order\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56  (NWICO). Any movement must know its own history and this is a \hich\f56 \lquote \loch\f56 snap-shot\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56  and \hich\f56 \lquote \loch\f56 broad-brush
\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56  treatment of this h\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 i\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 story.}{\cs18\super\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Some parts of this section are adapted from Story, CIPR Study, pp. 49-52. }}}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 The history presented here, it does need to be recognised, remains an institutional history of government action due to the paucity of sources available; a history of how \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 individual \hich\f56 \lquote \loch\f56 activists
\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56  in the South resisted copyright is yet to be researched and written. 
\par }{\dbch\af13\insrsid5375122\charrsid9309490 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5375122 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid5375122 
\hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 The early days of Berne in the South }{\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5375122 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid5375122\charrsid5375122 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 The Berne Convention, the leading international copyright convention that has also been incorporated into the TRIPS agreement \endash 
 meaning it must be followed by all members of the World Trade Organisation \endash  is a Western-based and unreconstructed colonial rel
ic which countries of the South had no role in drafting and which was imposed on them without consultation in an earlier era. The only non-European countries represented at the Berne Convention drafting table in 1886 were Tunisia, Haiti and Liberia. (Japa
n and the US attended as observers; the latter did not join for more than 100 years, finally signing in 1989.) 
\par 
\par However, many former colonies that today comprise most of the countries of the South became incorporated into Berne when they were under direct colonial rule. \lquote 
When nations such as France, Germany, and the United Kingdom signed the Berne Convention in 1886, they effectively committed their colonies to the Convention\rquote s obligations.\rquote }{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Paul Goldstein, International Copyright: Principles, Law, and Practice ( New York: Oxford University Press, 2001) p. 22.}}}{\insrsid7603589 
 For example, all areas that were part of the British Empire in 1886 (e.g., many parts of Africa and Asia) have been under the jurisdiction of the Berne Convention since 1887 when Britain ratified Be
rne. A map showing the territorial extent of Berne in 1914 shades in vast areas of Africa, the Indian sub-continent and Australia as \lquote dependent territories\rquote ; Berne\rquote 
s foothold in Latin America, by contrast, was limited to a few colonies in the north-eastern section. When colonies across the South became formally independent countries, many during the 1950s and 1960s, they \lquote 
increasingly chafed at the imposition of copyright treaty standards that had effectively been imposed on them by a foreign power.\rquote }{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid. }}}{
\insrsid7603589 
\par 
\par The importance of the wording of the first 1886 Convention, as originally ratified and thoroughly reflecting Western copyright values, is reinforced by the fact that any amendments or changes to the Convention require the unanimity of all members, Mor
eover, \lquote reservations\rquote  (an international law concept allowing a country to make exceptions in its own legislation for its own jurisdiction}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 The official UN definition of reservation: \lquote Reservation\rquote  means a unilateral statement, however phrased or named, mad
e by a State or an international organization when signing, ratifying, formally confirming, accepting, approving or acceding to a treaty or by a State when making a notification of succession to a treaty, whereby the State or organization purports to excl
ude or to modify the legal effect of certain provisions of the treaty in their application to that State or to that international organization. See: chapter VI, Reservations to treaties, Part C at }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 HYPERLINK http://www.un.org/law/ilc/reports/1999/english/chap6.htm }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b7200000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0075006e002e006f00720067002f006c00610077002f0069006c0063002f007200650070006f007200740073002f0031003900390039002f0065006e00
67006c006900730068002f00630068006100700036002e00680074006d000000000000000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.un.org/law/ilc/reports/1999/english/chap6.htm}}}}}{\insrsid7603589 ) to the Berne Convention are }{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid10308284 not}{\insrsid7603589  permitted. Hence, Berne is a particularly rigid and inflexible treaty. And although Berne has been amended \endash  in minor ways \endash  on different occasions between
 1886 and 1971, when the Paris \lquote revision\rquote  (the current version) was formulated, its basic structure and ideology has remained in place. 
\par 
\par A bit more understanding on the question of reservations is required. Reservations are }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid4274831 not }{\insrsid7603589 permitted after a country h
as acceded to a treaty. Take the example of what might occur if one of the more progressive countries in the South decided it wanted a reservation to Berne allowing much wider educational use of materials within its borders; such a step might significantl
y loosen the grip of the rich developed countries and their rights holders over the global use of such works. And such a step could provide a significant legal basis upon which to oppose \lquote the one size fits all\rquote 
 orientation of Berne and the TRIPS Agreement a
nd the WIPO Copyright Treaty. But there is one major hurdle such a country would face; the Berne Convention (and similar international treaties) forbids such a step to be taken. This prohibition reinforces, for countries of the South, the colonial nature 
of Berne. 
\par 
\par Here is when a sampling of some other \lquote leading\rquote 
 countries in the South who joined and became a party to the Berne Convention: Argentina (1967), Brazil (1922), Egypt (1977), India (1928), Mexico (1967), Pakistan (1948), Philippines (1951), South 
Africa (1928). Numbers of African countries joined in the 1960s and 1970s \endash  and some others in the 1990s. 
\par }{\insrsid5375122 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5375122 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 The late 1950}{
\f1\fs24\insrsid3483556 \rquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 s and 1960}{\f1\fs24\insrsid3483556 \rquote }{\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 s: the Southern revolt against copyright
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\lang2057\langfe1033\langfenp1033\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5375122 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 As is well known, a great number of countries in Asia and Africa gained their political independence in the late 1940\rquote 
s, the 1950}{\insrsid3483556 \rquote }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 s, and early 1960}{\insrsid3483556 \rquote }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
s, sometimes through armed liberation struggles (e.g. Algeria, Angola, and Cuba, among others). Schiller explains that in many of these countries \'93the impositions of colonialism were still fresh in their minds\'94, that \'93
these countries and their leaderships were in no mood to accept renewed subservience, be it economic, political and cultural\'94 and the \'93class interest was not, in many cases, strong enough to override the powerful expectations f
or economic improvement and equality and sovereign control of domestic resources that the liberation struggle generated.\'94 }{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Herbert Schiller, Mass Communications and American Empire (Boulder, Colorado, USA: Westview Press: 1992 \endash  Second edition). pp. 19-20 }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }{\insrsid5375122\charrsid7747762 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 Economic growth and development often led the list of their national priorities. Their needs in the information field \endash 
 greatly expanded levels of literacy, the rapid establishment of schools and universities at all levels, getting even limited access to printed materials, especially in technical and scientific fields \endash 
 were very different from those of rich nations. And their proposed solutions were very different as well. For example, the position of India was that \'93the high production costs of scien
tific and technical books standing in the way of their dissemination in developing countries could be substantially reduced if the advanced countries would freely allow their books to be reprinted and translated by underdeveloped countries.\'94}{
\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s30\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  C.F. Johnson,\rquote  The Origins of the Stockholm Protocol\rquote , Bulletin of the Copyright Society of the USA, XVIII (1970).}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 

\par }{\insrsid5375122\charrsid7747762 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 Independent Third World countries faced three choices in the 1950s and 1960s:
\par }{\insrsid5375122\charrsid7747762 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s26 \f56\fs22\cf1\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 a)\tab}}\pard\plain \s26\qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls36\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid5375122 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 Join (or remain in) the Berne Convention with its \lquote 
traditionally very high\rquote  standards and strong author\rquote s bias (the main/sole purpose of Berne, according to the preamble, is protecting \'93
in as effective and uniform a manner as possible, the rights of authors in their literary and artistic works\'94); 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s26 \f56\fs22\cf1\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 b)\tab}Join 
the marginally looser Universal Copyright Convention (1952); UNESCO and the US (not yet within Berne) were the main proponents of the UCC. 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s26 \f56\fs22\cf1\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 c)\tab}Not join either because the standards required for membership were too demanding.
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5375122 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par Most countries in the South quickly realised that international copyright conventions had not been set up with their particular interests or requirements in mind. \'93
Their opinion of the world copyright situation as of 1963 was that it was essentially European in orientation and }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 91 \\f "Symbol" \\s 11}{\fldrslt\f3\fs22}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \'85}
{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 93 \\f "Symbol" \\s 11}{\fldrslt\f3\fs22}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  opposed to their interests.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\lang3082\langfe2057\langnp3082\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ib\'edd. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  
\par }{\insrsid5375122\charrsid7747762 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 Meanwhile during the same period, Third World leaders such as Fidel Castro were denouncing the dangers of copyright and intellectual property ideologies. Here are a few excerpts from a speech he delivered in 1967 }{
\insrsid3483556 in }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 Guane, Pinar del Rio, in Cuba on the problems of printing and supply}{\insrsid3483556 ing}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  books in his country. While noting that historically \'93
intellectual creators have generally been poorly paid and many have suffered hunger\'94, he continued that Cuba had adopted a decision to \'93abolish\'94 intellectual property. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid5375122 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
What does this mean? We think that technical knowledge should be the patrimony of all mankind. We feel that what man's intelligence has created should be the pat
rimony of all mankind. Who pays Cervantes his royalties? For intellectual property? Who pays Shakespeare? Who pays the ones who invented the alphabet, those who invented numerals}{\i\insrsid3483556 ,}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 arithmetic, mathematics? All mankind has benefited in one way or another. Al
l mankind in one way or another uses the creations of man's intelligence throughout history. From the first primitive man who took a stick in his hand to knock down a fruit, mankind began to benefit from a creation of intelligence }{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 91 \\f "Symbol" \\s 11}{\fldrslt\f3\fs22}}}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \'85}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 93 \\f "Symbol" \\s 11}{\fldrslt\f3\fs22}}}{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  In other words, all or rather the large majority of man's creations have been accumulating through thousands of years and all mankind feels it is entitled to the enjoyment of the creation of intelligence }{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 91 \\f "Symbol" \\s 11}{\fldrslt\f3\fs22}}}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \'85}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 93 \\f "Symbol" \\s 11}{\fldrslt\f3\fs22}}}{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  How is it possible to want to deny man today, hundreds of thousands of human beings, not hundreds of thousands, I am wrong, hundreds of millions, billions of human beings who now live in poverty, in underdevelopment
\emdash how is it possible to want to block the access to technology for billions of human beings, a technology that they need for such basic things as nourishment, such as life itself }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 91 \\f 
"Symbol" \\s 11}{\fldrslt\f3\fs22}}}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \'85}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 93 \\f "Symbol" \\s 11}{\fldrslt\f3\fs22}}}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 We proclaim that we consider all technical knowledge a p
atrimony right of all mankind and that the peoples who have been most exploited have a particular right to it because, where is there hunger, where is there underdevelopment? Where is there ignorance? Where is the lack of technical knowledge?}{
\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn 
}{\fs20\lang3082\langfe2057\langnp3082\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\fs20\lang3082\langfe2057\langnp3082\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 HYPERLINK http://lanic.utexas.edu/la/cb/cuba/castro/1967/19670430 }{
\fs20\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b7000000068007400740070003a002f002f006c0061006e00690063002e007500740065007800610073002e006500640075002f006c0061002f00630062002f0063007500620061002f00630061007300740072006f00
2f0031003900360037002f00310039003600370030003400330030000000000000000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\fs20\lang3082\langfe2057\langnp3082\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://lanic.utexas.edu/la/cb/cuba/castro/1967/19670430}}}{
\fs20\lang3082\langfe2057\langnp3082\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5375122 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par As a follow-up to several UNESCO-initiated discussions in the early 1960\rquote s, representatives from 23 African countries met in Brazzaville Co
ngo in 1963 to begin formulating proposals to reform international copyright conventions in such a way that the needs of \lquote new\rquote 
 African nations (and Third World countries more generally) could be accommodated. Over the next several years, a number of propos
als were drafted; they included a reduction in the duration of copyright, translation rights, easier acquisition of licensed reproduction rights from Western publishers, national jurisdiction over the regulation of uses for educational or scholastic purpo
s
es (by contract, Berne did not and does not contain a basic education exemption), the protection of folklore, and some other related matters. Although there was some sympathy among certain organisations in the developed world to the particular needs of de
v
eloping countries and all governments (with the possible exception of the United Kingdom) agreed to some concessions, the copyright access proposals of the Third World countries were further restricted and further qualified, conference by conference and d
raft by draft, over the next few years. And even a supposedly final draft, known as the Stockholm Protocol of 1967, which had removed many of the key earlier proposals of developing countries, was still not acceptable to authors\rquote 
 organisations, publishers, and other right}{\insrsid3483556 s}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 holders in the developed world. To take one example, the sharpest difference between the developed and Southern countries occurred over the educational use issue, according to commentators. Although the term \lquote educational purposes\rquote  was stri
ctly defined in the Protocol, the addition of the words \'93in all fields of education\'94 was \'93wide enough to apply to mass literacy and adult education campaigns extending far beyond the confines of the classroom.\'94}{
\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s30\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  S. Ricketson, }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid14231777 The Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works: 1886-1986}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 (London: Centre for Commercial Law Studies, 1987). }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  
\par }{\insrsid5375122\charrsid7747762 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 Opposition quickly mounted in developed countries, especially in Europe, particularly among rights holders and their vociferous organisations. Indeed, the period \endash  and the conflicts raised \endash 
 has led commentators to state that there was \lquote an international crisis\rquote  in copyright law and regulation. Among governments in the developed world, the United Kingdom was the Protocol\rquote s principle opponent. On the one hand, UK\rquote 
s official representatives did speak with a certain honesty and forthrightness in its commentary on the Stockholm Protocol. The UK said that \'93[t]he Berne Convention is an instrument primarily designed to meet the needs of countries which have re
ached a certain stage of development.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Johnson. Op. cit }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 On the other hand, most British publishers did not mince their words. Sir Alan Herbert, chairman of the British Copyright Council, called the Protocol \'93a delayed actio
n bomb of dangerous principle into the flagship of copyright; a tunnel under the walls of the copyright fortress.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 The London Times, 3 and 11 August 1968, cited in Johnson.}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  To continue with Herbert\rquote s military metaphor, the Stockholm Protocol and its pri
nciples sank with little trace when confronted with such an onslaught by the well-armed legions from the richest nations. The final set of copyright proposals aimed at meeting the needs of developing countries became the 1971 Appendix to the Berne Convent
i
on. But the Appendix contained no provisions for free educational use or for any reduction in duration of copyright. Nor did it adequately address the indigenous knowledge issue. It did, however, permit the possibility of invoking the compulsory licensing
 of works if voluntary negotiations over translations and reproduction rights \endash  available only under very qualified conditions \endash 
 were not successful. Since 1971, these compulsory licensing provisions have rarely been invoked by countries of the South. Writing in 1987, Sam Ricketson stated that \'93
only a handful of developing countries have so far availed themselves of its provisions.\'94 }{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 For more on the failure of the Berne Appendix, see above.}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  But while after 1971 the \lquote crisis\rquote  had subsided, opposition then moved to another forum, UNESCO, within a few years. 
\par }{\insrsid5375122\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5375122 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 The }{
\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1 New World}{\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid15298483 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1  Information and Communication}{
\fs24\loch\af1\hich\af1\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \hich\af1\dbch\af13\loch\f1  Order (NWICO) 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5375122 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\lang2057\langfe1033\dbch\af13\langfenp1033\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 After limited research, it appears to be the case that copyright issues did }{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 not}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  play a leading role in the call for a}{\cf1\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  }{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \loch\af56\dbch\af13\hich\f56 \lquote \loch\f56 
New World Information an\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 d Communications Order\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56  (NWICO) led by }{\dbch\af13\insrsid3483556 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 the }{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Non-Aligned Movement in the late 1970s. At the same time, repressive copyright laws that prevented access did play an important background role in the concerns about media monopolies and glaring inequalities in th
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 e existing information order that had been voiced in the 1960\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56 s as noted above. 
\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 A 1976 seminar in Tunis produced a report entitle}{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 d Information in the Non-Aligned Countries}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 . The following excerpts give a flavour of the anti-imperialist sentiment that was being expressed: 
\par 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\loch\af2\hich\af2\dbch\af13\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af2\dbch\af13\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls34\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid5375122 {\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
Since information in the world shows a disequilibrium favouring some and ignoring others, it is the duty of the non-aligned countries}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 91 \\f "Symbol"
 \\s 11}{\fldrslt\f3\fs22}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \'85}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 93 \\f "Symbol" \\s 11}{\fldrslt\f3\fs22}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  }{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 to change this situation and obtain the de-colonization of information and initiate a new international order in information. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5375122 {\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\loch\af2\hich\af2\dbch\af13\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af2\dbch\af13\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls34\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid5375122 {\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
The peoples of developing countries are the victims of domination in information and this domination is a blow to their most authentic cultural values, and in the final analysis subjugates their interests to those of imperialism. }{
\cs18\super\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  These quotations are ta
ken from Colleen Roach, The Western World and the NWICO: United They Stand? in Peter Goldring and Phil Harris, eds. Beyond Cultural Imperialism (Sage 1997). }}}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5375122 {\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 The US media and communications theorist Herbert Schiller explains the context and the main conc\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 erns of this movement as articulated by a 1980 UNESCO Report. 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid5375122 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 The culmination of the Third World effort to restructure the global information condition was realised in the creation by UNESCO in 1978 of the McBride Commission for the Study of Communicatio\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
n Problems. The commission\hich\f56 \rquote \loch\f56 s report}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid1519888 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 , Many Voices, One World}{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
 (1980), recapitulated many of the themes that had occupied the}{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid1519888 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  discussions from the 1960}{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
s on: the power of the transnational media conglomerates; the one-way flow of media product and information \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
from New York, Los Angeles, Washington, London and Paris to the rest of the world; the excessive commercialisation of that flow; and the need for protection of national cultural sovereignty in the face of the cultural avalanche from the West.}{
\cs18\i\super\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Schiller, 20. }}}{\i\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5375122 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
NWICO had a relatively brief international profile. The McBride report and its 82 recommendations (grouped under five core policy areas of communication policy, technology, culture, human rights and international cooperation) were ferociously attack
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 
ed, especially by the US government, the US media and rights holders (as well as other governments such as the UK) as a dangerous attack on free speech, free markets and a free press. Soon afterwards the US withdrew from UNESCO (it later re-joined) and UN
\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 E\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 SCO itself was overtaken by the WTO and WIPO in copyright matters. }{\cs18\super\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 For more on this change, see Section 3.9 in the dossier. }}}{\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par 
\par \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 Though their policy roots are not necessarily a part of the NWICO period, certain countries have erected barriers to foreign-p\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 \hich\f56 
roduced (and copyrighted) works. In China, for example, the state allows only 20 foreign films to be distributed each year. One report notes that such a release in China \'93\loch\f56 
is often delayed for several months, long after pirated DVD versions are available f\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 o\hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56 \hich\f56 r less than a fifth of the price of a cinema ticket.\'94}{
\cs18\super\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Jonathan Watts, \lquote Snow White and the seven kung fu monks: Disney sets sights on China\rquote , The Guardian (UK), 5 July 2005. }}}{
\dbch\af13\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af56\dbch\af13\loch\f56  }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }{\insrsid5375122\charrsid7747762 \page }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid5375122 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734301}
5.3 National or regional movements opposing TRIPS as interference in their cultural life{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734301}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid5375122 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par There is growing national, international and regional resistance to TRIPS and the impact of copyright on cultural survival and cultural life with numerous organizations active throughout the global south
 resisting the expansion of TRIPS. The following are examples of regional movements focused on culture and TRIPS. 
\par 
\par AfriTAN}{\insrsid1519888 \emdash }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 the African section of the TRIPS Action Network}{\insrsid1519888  \emdash }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
has focused on access to medication as part of their resistance to the TRIPS agreem
ent. Action Aid Pakistan has developed TRIPS resistance to Agricultural Issues. The Gene Campaign has worked with the Centre for Environmental Concerns in India to focus on intellectual property, environment, and agricultural issues. RAFI (Rural Foundatio
n Advancement International) now operating under the name Action Group on Erosion, Technology and Concentration (ETC) has also been instrumental in global south resistance to TRIPS.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 For occasional papers and updates see: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.etcgroup.org/publications.asp" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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5200000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e00650074006300670072006f00750070002e006f00720067002f007000750062006c00690063006100740069006f006e0073002e006100730070000000000000000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
http://www.etcgroup.org/publications.asp}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  
\par 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
In the Pacific region, native Hawaiians and the Maori in New Zealand have also developed a position critical of TRIPS and western intellectual property rights. Mililani B. Trask, Native Hawai\rquote 
ian and Indigenous Expert to the United Nations for the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues stated that, \lquote 
The TRIPS agreement within the WTO which is intended to internationalise current intellectual property laws constitutes a major threat to the cultural integrity and rights of indigenous peoples, including territorial and resource rights.\rquote }{
\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Mililani B. Trask, \lquote Globalization and Indigenous Rights,\rquote 
 Paper presented at the Third International Conference on Diversity in Organizations, Communities and Nations. East-West Center, Honolulu, Hawai\rquote i, February 13-16, 2003, 5.}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
 The critique made by Trask is hinged upon the underlying argument that TRIPS puts \lquote traditional knowledge\rquote  outside the protective shield of copyright or patent law and thus \lquote free\rquote  to appropriate as the \lquote 
heritage of humankind.\rquote  (This underlying conflict between copyright and traditional knowledge is dealt with in Section 3.5 of the dossier.) 
\par 
\par However, the fact that TRIPS protects some forms of knowledge, but not others helps to highlight the problems associated with an agreement that emphasizes individual authorship and ownership while ignoring the fact that much of the world\rquote 
s creative knowledge is not individually owned and perhaps should remain that way. 
\par 
\par The Maori in New Zealand have also begun resisting cultural theft by developing property rights in cultural and intellectual heritage. They established the Waitangi Tribunal to deal with these issues.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Leo Watson and Maui Solomon, \lquote The Waitangi Tribunal and the Maori Claim to their Cultural and Intellectual Heritage Rights Property,\rquote  Cultural Survival Quarterly, Vol. 24, January 31, 2001, 46.}}}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  The aborigin}{\insrsid9661410 al}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 s in Australia have perhaps moved the furthest down this path by trying to develop a system that would protect their art and cultu
re within the framework of copyright law. 
\par 
\par Resistance is also growing throughout Latin America. In 1999, Brazilian indigenous peoples met at the National Encounter of Paj\'e9s to talk about traditional knowledge and bio-piracy where they issued a declaration
 seeking to stop the theft of indigenous knowledge.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Stanley Krippner, \lquote The Manifesto,\rquote  Brazil, N. 162, June 30, 1999, 55.}}}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  In December of 2001, indigenous representatives in Brazil, representing over 360,000 indigenous peoples met in S\'e3o Lu\'eds to again di
scuss the issue of Indigenous Knowledge and develop a statement resisting the western definition of intellectual property.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Declaration of Shamans on Intellectual Property and the Protection of Traditional Knowledge and Genetic Resources. Made available to the Intergovernmental Committee by the Delegation of Brazil. Available at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.nativeweb.org/pages/legal/shamans.pdf" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000003100000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e006e00610074006900760065007700650062002e006f00720067002f00700061006700650073002f006c006500670061006c002f007300680061006d0061006e0073002e007000640066000000
e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b6200000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e006e00610074006900760065007700650062002e006f00720067002f00700061006700650073002f006c006500670061006c002f007300680061006d0061006e0073002e007000640066000000000000000000000300
000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.nativeweb.org/pages/legal/shamans.pdf}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 .}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  
\par 
\par These examples suggest that disagreement with TRIPS and its m
ethodologies can be found throughout the globe. However, it is also important to recognize that resistance exists at the governmental level and trans-national level as well. The following two sections help illustrate how resistance is coalescing around th
e issue of free trade and access to knowledge.
\par }{\insrsid8723256\charrsid9309490 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid8723256 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid8723256 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734302}5.4 Venezuela}{
\b0\fs28\insrsid7605862  i}{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid8723256 nitiative on the }{\b0\fs28\insrsid7605862 r}{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid8723256 ights of }{\b0\fs28\insrsid7605862 a}{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid8723256 uthors
{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734302}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\fs28\insrsid7603589 
\par }{\insrsid7603589 In November of 2005, negotiations surrounding the Free Trade of the Americas Agreement (FTAA) agreement broke down amidst massive so
cial protest and differences in how to approach trade between the United States and its trading partners in Latin America. Led by Venezuela, many countries in Latin America have begun to resist the notion of a free trade agreement with TRIPS-like language
. Instead, countries throughout Central and South American are beginning to coalesce around an alternative plan and one that more closely aligns trade with poverty reduction and the extension of social services. One important part of this process is the 
\lquote authors\rquote  rights\rquote  initiative developed in Venezuela.
\par 
\par In 2005, Venezuela\rquote s Autonomous Service of Intellectual Property (SAPI) created a new initiative to articulate the growing concern of the Venezuelan government regarding corporate control over intellectual
 property. This new initiative seeks to develop and protect 'authors\rquote  rights' as separate from the commercialization of copyrights. The Director of SAPI, Eduardo Sam\'e1n, said of the initiative that, \'93
The idea is to capture the essence of the author\rquote s right,
 and that this belongs to the natural person, the composers, the writers, the interpreters, the artists, and performers. And that corporations keep away from the legislation, and that they do not enjoy any human right like [sic] authorship.\'94}{
\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Quoted in Mar\'eda Isabel Cer\'f3n, \lquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid15298483 
Intellectual Property is a Human not a Corporate Right: Propiedad intelectual es un derecho humano no corporative.\rquote  SAPI, Autonomous Service of Intellectual Property. http://www.sepi.gob.ve/web/index.php, 2005.}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}
}{\insrsid7603589 
\par 
\par The author\rquote 
s right would allow for copyright to remain with the individual author and disallow corporations from appropriating these rights to further exploit authors. The intent is to provide more autonomy to the author, who under current practice is required to si
gn over copyright to the publishing company and thus lose control over their works. Under this new paradigm, the author would retain copyright control and enter into a contract relationship with a publisher that could be renewed or ended in order for the 
author to seek a more mutually beneficial relationship.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307  Andrea Coa, \lquote \'bf}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
Rights of Authors as a Form of Economic and Cultural Domination of Imperialism: Derechos de autor como medio de dominacion economica y cultural del}{\insrsid8483307  imperialismo?\rquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Paper presented at the
 International Congress of Culture and Development. Ministry of Culture, June 6-9, 2005. }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.sapi.gob.ve" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000001700000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0073006100700069002e0067006f0062002e00760065000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b3000000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0073006100700069002e00
67006f0062002e00760065002f0000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.sapi.gob.ve}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  or }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.cult.cu" }{
\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000001300000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e00630075006c0074002e00630075000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b2800000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e00630075006c0074002e00630075002f000000
0000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.cult.cu}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . }}}{\insrsid7603589  
\par 
\par SAPI itself sees its objectives as promoting sustainable economic and social development by improving access to knowledge.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307  \lquote History of SAPI,
\rquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.sapi.gov.ve" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000001700000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0073006100700069002e0067006f0076002e00760065000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b3000000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0073006100700069002e00
67006f0076002e00760065002f0000000800000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.sapi.gov.ve}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 .}}}{\insrsid7603589  While part of SAPI\rquote 
s task is to protect items falling under an intellectual property rubric
, their goals and objectives are distinctly different from many similar organizations found in the global North. Not only does SAPI concern itself with how copyrighted works are shared, but also sees itself as integral in protecting traditional knowledge 
and biodiversity.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid.}}}{\insrsid7603589  Protecting an \lquote author\rquote s right\rquote 
, which maps most closely to a moral rights perspective, is also essential to this initiative. 
\par 
\par SAPI\rquote s author\rquote s rights initiative is part of a much larger resistance to neo-liberal globalization emerging out of the Bolivarian Alternative for Latin America and the Caribbean (ALBA).}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307  Teresa Arreaza, 
\lquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 ALBA: Bolivarian Alternative for Latin America and the Caribbean}{\insrsid8483307 ,\rquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  January 30, 2004. }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.venezuelanalysis.com/docs.php?dno=1010" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000003200000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e00760065006e0065007a00750065006c0061006e0061006c0079007300690073002e0063006f006d002f0064006f00630073002e007000680070003f0064006e006f003d003100300031003000
0000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b6400000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e00760065006e0065007a00750065006c0061006e0061006c0079007300690073002e0063006f006d002f0064006f00630073002e007000680070003f0064006e006f003d00310030003100300000000000000000}
}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.venezuelanalysis.com/docs.php?dno=1010}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . }}}{\insrsid7603589  ALBA is Venezuela\rquote s alternative to the Free Trade of the America\rquote 
s Agreement (FTAA) and focuses on poverty reduction and regional integration that benefits more than transnational corporations.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid.}}}{
\insrsid7603589  ALBA also offers an alternative to intellectual property as defined by the United States:
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid8723256 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid8723256 
\par The ALBA is also opposed to the intellectual property rights regimes on the grounds that they only protect the areas of scientific and technological knowledge that deve
loped countries control, while at the same time leaving unprotected those areas in which the developing countries have considerable advantage: biodiversity of their territories and the traditional knowledge of peasant and aborigine peoples. The fact also 
contributes to deepening the asymmetries that exist between countries.}{\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid8723256 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid.}}}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid8723256 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
Venezuela has taken the lead in opposing neo-liberal trade, along with Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307  Cory Fischer-Hoffman, 
\lquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Argentina: The Pe}{\insrsid8483307 ople\rquote s Summit Against the FTAA,\rquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  November 7, 2005. }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.upsidedownworld.org/main/content/view/110/1" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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3100310030002f0031000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b6e00000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0075007000730069006400650064006f0077006e0077006f0072006c0064002e006f00720067002f006d00610069006e002f0063006f006e00740065006e0074002f0076006900650077
002f003100310030002f00310000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.upsidedownworld.org/main/content/view/110/1}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . }}}{\insrsid7603589 
 Venezuela is developing through ALBA an alternative trade approach and has currently established an agreement to sell oil for medication with Cuba.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307  \lquote }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 An Alternativ}{\insrsid8483307 e to the FTAA?\rquote }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Bugs\rquote  Blog. Jueves, 13, 2005. }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://bbugs.blogspot.com/2005/01/alternative-to-ftaa.html" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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66007400610061002e00680074006d006c000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b7600000068007400740070003a002f002f00620062007500670073002e0062006c006f006700730070006f0074002e0063006f006d002f0032003000300035002f00300031002f0061006c007400650072006e0061007400690076
0065002d0074006f002d0066007400610061002e00680074006d006c0000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://bbugs.blogspot.com/2005/01/alternative-to-ftaa.html}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . }}}{\insrsid7603589 
 ALBA is not without its critics. Specifically, anti-GMO activists are upset because GMOs would still be traded under the agreement.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Fischer-Hoffman, Op. Cit.}}}{\insrsid7603589  Furthermore, many see the agreement as not going far enough in attempting to solve th
e problems faced by many countries in Latin America and offering only a superficial alternative to the FTAA. However, ALBA does offer an alternative to free trade as defined by the United States with a different framework that considers not only copyright
 issues, but issues related to creating a better society for all. As such, it is a form of resistance, if a small act, that is worth commenting upon and researching further. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid8723256 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid8723256 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid8723256 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734303}
5.5 Resisting the privatisation of cultural life{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734303} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par Resisting the privatisation of cultural life has been taken up in some detail in Sections One and Three of the dossier. Identifying the harms associated with privatisation suggest certain avenues for resistance. Specifically, if the problem with copyright
 
is that it privatises cultural life, then a clear method of resistance is to foster a vibrant public domain, endorse programs that encourage the free flow of culture and information, and make the critique of privatisation as public as possible in order to
 allow people to understand the costs. Because the global South cannot be easily described as a single constituency with a uniform platform, how countries in the global south resist the privatisation of cultural life will vary. 
\par 
\par First, developing countries
 that are members of the WTO may seek revisions to the TRIPS agreement as a form of resistance. While not the most radical form of resistance, these states have at some level endorsed (or been coerced into supporting) the neo-liberal globalisation model a
n
d thus seek to create change from within. States choosing to follow this path may find the Access to Knowledge model discussed below compelling, even if it offers only a limited critique of the current system. States pursuing change within the TRIPS agree
ment or WIPO through the \lquote development agenda\rquote  are not automatically rejecting the privatisation of cultural life \endash 
 at least not at the level of publicly endorsed policy, but instead may seek to preserve their own ability to maximize cultural profits. While 
this dossier remains critical of any approach that seeks the privatisation of cultural knowledge, it should also be recognized that the resistance of many states in the global South takes the form of rewriting TRIPS. The rejection of copyright as currentl
y understood is typically left to activists while governments negotiate terms more in their interests. 
\par 
\par A second mode of resistance is constructing alternative creative paradigms. Brazil stands out as one country actively seeking such an alternative to cop
yright law. Brazil is developing projects focused on the use of the creative commons, free software, and the exchange of music outside the scope of copyright. In Brazil, there is growing interest in, and respect for, the language of open societies that is
 
at the heart of many developing country platforms related to intellectual property. Thus, while the language of open source initially applied only to computer software, it is now being applied to textbooks, music and knowledge more generally. This open so
urce language is meeting with growing endorsement around the world.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  TecTonic: Africa\rquote s Source for Open Source News, \lquote Free Software in Africa \endash 
 2005, A Year for Real Growth,\rquote  January 11, 2005. }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.tectonic.co.za/view.php?id=399" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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a90b5400000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0074006500630074006f006e00690063002e0063006f002e007a0061002f0076006900650077002e007000680070003f00690064003d003300390039000000000000000069120000000000}}}{\fldrslt {
\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.tectonic.co.za/view.php?id=399}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 (looks at the application of open source computer technology to Africa); For a South African initiative on open source textbooks see: Free High School Science Texts \endash  }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.nongnu.org/fhsst/" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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2e006e006f006e0067006e0075002e006f00720067002f00660068007300730074002f00000000000000003a000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.nongnu.org/fhsst/}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
; California is seeking to develop a similar program to offset the enormous cost of textbooks in the state. See: California Open Source Textbook Project \endash  }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.opensourcetext.org/index.htm" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e006f00700065006e0073006f00750072006300650074006500780074002e006f00720067002f0069006e006400650078002e00680074006d00000000000000004e00ff00000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
http://www.opensourcetext.org/index.htm}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 ; Finally, there is an initiative to establish a creative commons licensing agreement for textbooks. See: Open Textbook \endash  }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.opentextbook.org/" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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2e006f00700065006e00740065007800740062006f006f006b002e006f00720067002f000000000000000079000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.opentextbook.org/}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . }}}{\insrsid7603589 
\par 
\par The rejection of the privatisation model is also articulated in the work of those seeking to protect traditional knowledge. These actors can be found throughout the global South, but also in developed countries (for example, the Maori or the Native Hawai
\rquote ians). There are several themes embraced b
y supporters of traditional knowledge that serve as the foundation for resistance. First, culture should not be commodified. Second, culture is integrally linked to traditional knowledge and both are expressions of groups of people, not individuals. Third
, the relationship of people to the environment is essential and should be respected. Fourth, that much of what is considered traditional knowledge is sacred. 
\par 
\par Many indigenous groups have attempted to resist the expansion of individualized intellectual pro
perty rights by articulating a collective or group right to traditional knowledge. Others demand compensation for the theft of knowledge and resources that have been co-opted into a system of intellectual property. Here are some examples:
\par }{\insrsid8723256 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8723256 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid8723256 The National Enc
ounter of Paj\'e9s}{\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8723256 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid8723256\charrsid8723256 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 Some of the demands of the National Encounter of Paj\'e9
s, a meeting of Brazilian indigenous leaders from numerous different indigenous nations include:
\par 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid1343075 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls37\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid8723256 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid1343075 There are patent laws that register under the names of outsiders what, in 
truth, belongs to us. These laws are neither good nor just for indigenous people. These laws permit the theft of our knowledge. We demand a new law, one that gives voice to the Paj\'e9s \endash 
 as representatives of indigenous people, one that guarantees that we have the rights to what is ours. We want to be heard and we want our wishes to be respected whenever laws are made concerning this matter.
\par }\pard \qj \li360\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid1343075 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid1343075 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls37\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid8723256 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid1343075 We know that various plants, animals, insects, and even our own blood samples are exported from Brazil to other coun
tries. Our land is like an open market, where anyone can enter and carry away whatever they like. We demand that the Brazilian government monitor its own gateways in order to establish a better protection of its own patrimony.
\par }\pard \qj \li360\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid1343075 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid1343075 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls37\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid8723256 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid1343075 The future of our traditional knowledge, a rare and precious resource for all humankind, might not be secure. Our Paj\'e9
s and our elders are dying with illnesses that did not exist in the old days. Many of our children and our young people are dying of illne
ss and starvation. Therefore, we demand that the authorities assist us in maintaining our health and guaranteeing the survival of our people.
\par }\pard \qj \li360\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid1343075 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid1343075 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls37\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid8723256 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid1343075 The Earth is our Great Mother. Nature is the largest and best pharmacy that exists in the world. Without nature
, our traditional knowledge will not be useful to our people or to the rest of humanity. The invaders\rquote 
 greed has resulted in the transformation of our national resources into money. This greed has brought sickness, starvation, and death to our people. Duri
ng the fires in the northern state of Roraima, many animals, herbs, and vines that we used in our medicines perished, and no longer exist. Our Great Mother Earth is mortally wounded, and if she die}{\i\insrsid6428464 s}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid1343075 
, we will die as well. If she dies, the invaders will have no future. Therefore, we demand protection of our lands. We demand the guarantee, through demarcation, of the space that is necessary for our physical and cultural survival.}{
\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid1343075 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Stanley Krippner, \lquote The Manifesto,\rquote  Brazil, Vol. 162, June 30, 1999, p. 55.}}}{\i\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8723256 {\i\insrsid8723256 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8723256 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 Th
e Declaration of Shamans on Intellectual Property
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par The Declaration of Shamans on Intellectual Property and the Protection of Traditional Knowledge and Genetic Resources declares that: 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid8723256 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
We propose the adoption of a universal instrument of legal protection of traditional knowledge \endash 
 an alternative, sui generis system distinct from the regimes of protection of intellectual property rights and that addresses, among other aspects: the recognition of indigenous lands and territories and consequently its demarcat
ion; the recognition of the collective property of traditional knowledge as not subject to expiration in time and as non-negotiable and of the resources as public interest goods; the right of local indigenous peoples and communities to deny access to trad
i
tional knowledge and to the existing genetic resources in their territories; the recognition of the traditional forms of organization of the indigenous peoples; the inclusion of the principle of prior informed consent and a clear disposition with respect 
to the participation of indigenous peoples in the fair and equitable distribution of benefits resulting from the use of these resources and knowledge; and the continuity of free exchange of resources and traditional knowledge among indigenous peoples.}{
\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.nativeweb.org/pages/legal/shamans.pdf" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 
{\*\datafield 
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000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.nativeweb.org/pages/legal/shamans.pdf}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 While incomplete, these examples are indicative of platforms expressing an interest in protecting traditional knowledge. They are concerned wi
th an articulation of group rights, collective ownership, establishing walls against the appropriation of knowledge into the intellectual property system, and the establishment of control over what is deemed traditional knowledge. Other concerns over priv
atisation are addressed through the types of resistances described throughout this section.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid8723256 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid8723256 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734304}
5.6 Possible alternatives to copyright in the South{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734304} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par Numerous alternatives have been proposed. These tend to be along the lines of those outlined earlier in this section. They range from the following:
\par 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 1.\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls31\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid8723256 {
\insrsid7603589 A system of group rights that places traditional knowledge in a permanent condition of cultural protection.
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 2.\tab}The use of copyright laws to protect traditional designs and culture from appropriation and misuse.
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 3.\tab}Resisting the expansion of TRIPS-plus type legislation at the international level. 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 4.\tab}Utilizing the concept of open source licensing and applying this concept to all areas of creative work and cultural exchange. 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 5.\tab}
Arguing for a strong layer of technology transfer and information exchange at the international level in order to ensure that developing countries do not get left out of technological progress.
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 6.\tab}Developing a limited system of rights with short terms for protection but without the lengthy terms inherent in the copyright system.
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 7.\tab}Eliminating copyright.
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 8.\tab}Resisting commodification and attempting to retain access to knowledge as a human right and not a commercial right.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 
\par As outlined in the first four sections of this dossier, there are serious problems associated with copyright and its application in the global South. While there may be some role for a system of copyright protection, creativity
 and invention certainly happen outside the boundaries of copyright law. 
\par 
\par A system of copyright allows for creative works to be privatised and primarily benefits the owners of copyrights. The owners of copyright are often not the same as the original crea
tors of the artistic work. Take the example of classic American jazz artists. Many of these talented musicians, responsible for creating one of America\rquote 
s most original musical forms, were paid flat rates for their most important contributions to this music
. The bulk of the profits produced by jazz artists went to the labels and producers with many of the most talented musicians dying penniless. Copyrights did nothing to encourage innovation and creativity in this example, but rather established a system of
 
exploitation in which those who create are not likely to benefit from their creations. Furthermore, copyright makes it difficult to build upon the earlier work of other jazz musicians by privatising the music and requiring licences to use even the smalles
t
 portions. Such monopolization of music is a barrier to the creation of new works instead of facilitating new creation. The same type of problems will exist as countries throughout the global South come to see music as a form of property instead of a cult
ural treasure.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Anthony McCann maps the enclosure of Irish folk music in his dissertation, }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid983116 \lquote 
Beyond the Commons: The Expansion of the Irish Music Rights Organization, the Elimination of Uncertainty, and the Politics of Enclosure}{\i\insrsid8483307\charrsid983116 \rquote  }{\insrsid8483307 (}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 2002. }{
\insrsid8483307 Available }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid1267907 http://www.beyondthecommons.com/beyondthecommons.html}{\insrsid8483307 ).}}}{\insrsid7603589  
\par 
\par Instead of assuming the western system spurs innovation, it is important to recognize that most of the important innovation and creativity happens during relatively open and less regulated eras whe
re people work for the common good instead of individual property rights.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Peter Kropotkin makes a very compelling argument for this point, arguing that the innovations of the 18}{
\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 th}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  and 19}{\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 th}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  centuries often attributed to individualism would never have been
 possible without the paradigm of mutual aid that existed in the 15}{\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 th}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  \endash 17}{\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 th}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 centuries. See: Peter Kropotkin, Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, Boston, Extending Horizons Books, 1955.}}}{\insrsid7603589 
\par 
\par Given this framework, the alternative system must begin with normative
 assertions of innovation and creativity for the purposes of mutual aid. It is possible to innovate at the most sophisticated levels without the incentive of intellectual property as a guiding force, but with the incentive of providing for the public good
. For example, witness the success of Cuban pharmaceutical research in developing essential medicines without recourse to patent law, but instead attempting to ensure that their contributions will not be unlawfully appropriated by the patent system.

\par 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 It sho
uld also be recognized that sharing innovation does not necessarily mean that no profits can be made, but rather that profits will not take precedent over essential human values such as sharing and mutual aid. 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid8723256 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734305}5.7 The A2K (Access to Knowledge
) treaty group{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734305}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par The Access to Knowledge (A2K) group is a relatively informal and primarily US and European-based group of activists (plus a few academics, mostly American) drafting an \lquote access to knowledge\rquote 
 treaty. The A2K group aims, in the first instance, to have this draft treaty signed by governments, particularly governments of the South, and especially those pursuing a \lquote development agenda\rquote 
 at the World Intellectual Property Organisation. There are also persons from the South involved in A2K. The main focus of the group is improving \lquote access to knowledge,\rquote  especially in the South \endash 
 and hence its work and objectives are worth commenting upon and assessing. 
\par 
\par The most recent large session of the A2K group was held in London on 12 and 13 May 2005. What follows is an edited \lquote backgrounder\rquote  to that session\emdash 
prepared by Kaye Stearman of the Trans-Atlantic Consumer Dialogue (closely linked to the CP Tech group based in Washington, and Consumers International, headquarters in London)\emdash 
and then it comments briefly on the orientation and direction of the A2K group.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Before the London session, a 9 May draft of the draft treaty (containing a total of 12 articles on a wide range of access issues) had been prepared; it is available at: http://www.cptech.org/a2k/consolidatedtext-may9.pdf}}}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  
\par 
\par First, Stearman\rquote s report: 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid8723256 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 In September 2004 an expert group of academics, educators, representatives of libraries, consumer organisations, the open source movement and others gathered i
n Geneva to discuss reform of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). The meeting laid down a challenge to WIPO to reform rules relating to intellectual property (IP), such as copyright and patents. The problem is that the balance of some IP 
rules have shifted too far towards the protection of rights-holders, and removed the traditional rights of users.
\par 
\par A major problem was how to provide wider access to knowledge, especially for poorer consumers in developing countries. A second meeting in Gen
eva in February 2005 determined that the world needed a new treaty, or at least principles, to redress this imbalance as part of a `development agenda\rquote 
 led by the Consumer Project on Technology (CPTech), an expert group began drafting a Treaty on Access to Knowledge
\par 
\par A third meeting convened at Queen Mary College in London on 12-13 May 2005 to take the draft forward. Of around one hundred participants around half were academic or legal experts, and half represented consumer and user groups. A substantial mi
nority came from developing countries, including Brazil, India, Kenya, Malaysia, South Africa and Zimbabwe. All were keen to listen, learn and argue points of law and substance.
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid8723256 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
So where does the draft Treaty go from here? The next step will be to incorpo
rate all the amendments, additions, omissions and other suggested changes to produce a new draft that will be circulated to meeting participants for final comments. When this has been completed, the draft can be presented to governments and promoted aroun
d
 the world, maybe even at the WIPO General Assembly in September 2005. Ultimately, it is hoped that the treaty, or at least the ideas that are driving it, will be adopted and ratified by WIPO, and incorporated into national laws and a modern way of lookin
g at intellectual property.\rquote }{\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Funders for this London session were the Rockefeller Foundation, the Open Society Institute, and the John D and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation}}}{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8723256 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid6428464 
\par Both prior to the London session and afterwards it seemed (and seems) clear th
at the starting point and overall philosophy in choosing this particular drafting language and this particular approach was often not derived from the actual on-the-ground access needs of the different users and different constituencies in the South. On t
he one hand, there has been an extreme paucity of research or discussion within the A2K group as to what such access needs actually are, particularly in the South. To take two examples:}{\insrsid14305830\charrsid6428464 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid6428464 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s71 \f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid6428464 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard\plain \s71\qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls38\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid8723256 \f2\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f56\fs22\insrsid7603589\charrsid6428464 
There is a constant preoccupation with delivering content/access through the Internet when, in fact, many parts of the South, especially in the poorest countries, lack even rudimentary Internet access for a variety of reasons (such as economic conditions,
 small percentage of population with access to a computer, poor quality telecommunications links, etc.) In any event, what type of \lquote knowledge\rquote  predominates on the Internet and in what language? 
\par }\pard \s71\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8723256 {\f56\fs22\insrsid7603589\charrsid6428464 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\s71 \f2\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid6428464 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard \s71\qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls38\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid8723256 {\f56\fs22\insrsid7603589\charrsid6428464 Key access issues for the South, such as \lquote indigenous (or traditional) knowledge\rquote 
 and translation, are not even mentioned in the draft and others, such as distance learning and libraries, were dealt with as if the access situation under debate was that prevailing solely in Boston or Berlin. 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid8723256 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par On the other hand, and this is the more critical point , this group and its draft A2K treaty start \endash  and essentially end \endash 
 by funnelling all access questions through a traditional copyright lens, albeit a slightly more liberal and pro-user friendly version. For example, instituting a more liberal US \lquote fair use\rquote  or UK \lquote fair dealing\rquote 
 regime in the South is viewed as }{\insrsid8723256\charrsid9309490 the principle }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 and }{\insrsid8723256\charrsid9309490 essential answer }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
for overcoming access problems in the South. Traditional privileged actors in copyright discourse, such as \lquote authors\rquote 
 retain a privileged place (as they do with Creative Commons licences; see section 5.9 of this dossier). Well-known copyright barriers affecting, for example, the visually impaired (e.g. how any type of reproduction needed to produce materials in an acces
sible format is necessarily an infringement of copyright) are }{\insrsid8723256\charrsid9309490 not}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
 challenged head-on. This document avoids suggesting that changing the format of a document to allow access should legally }{\insrsid8723256\charrsid9309490 not}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
 be considered as reproduction. (If such changing the format was n
ot considered reproduction, visually impaired groups would avoid any liability for a copyright infringement as they do now.) Nor are collecting societies tackled and current distance learning barriers, which are very important in the South, are simply twe
aked (See Section 4.3 of this dossier on distance learning in the South and copyright barriers). 
\par 
\par Furthermore, there is an unchallenged belief in the value of existing legal measures and approaches to correct the current imbalance in copyright regimes. Exa
mples include the inclusion of Article 7.1 and 7.2 and some of the discussions in London, such as the remarks of a leader of the A2K group, when he suggested that countries in the South should establish anti-competition and anti-trust measures and regimes
 
as a key way to challenge copyright and IP monopolies. In fact, the litigation and regulatory history from the North (e.g. the US and EU challenges to the Microsoft software monopoly) shows how weak and ineffective such a strategy usually is, especially i
n isolation. In the same vein, there is a}{\insrsid1245199 n}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  overwhelming focus on compulsory licensing, despite the high transaction costs and \lquote di}{\insrsid1245199 scouragement\rquote  costs they entail}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  as shown, for example, by the abject failure of the Berne Convention Appendix to improve access as discussed in this dossier in Section 4.12. And finally the draft treaty is filled with legal \lquote weasel words\rquote 
 and phrases such as \lquote reasonably effective measures\rquote  (e.g. Article 3-1). The interpretation of such phrases (presumably by a World Trade Organisat
ion panel) would be based on existing pro-owner jurisprudence and give little certainty or comfort to potential users, except for those with deep pockets who are able to fund such litigation. (See Section 4.12 of this dossier on the problems South African
 
universities have faced in funding such litigation.) Rather than a badly needed and bold analysis of copyright law, its presumptions, its ideologies and how these act as an access barrier, the A2K drafters remain trapped in traditional copyright legal nar
ratives; they focus on \lquote limitations and \lquote exceptions\rquote  (that is, \lquote limitations and exceptions\rquote  to the normal and \lquote natural\rquote 
 form of works as copyrighted works) and how to interpret them in a more favourable light. (e.g. Article 3-1). }{\insrsid14305830\charrsid9309490 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par Conversely, there is an implicit assumption that the proposed drafting language of the A2K treaty would actually \lquote pass muster\rquote 
 internationally. For example, if country X actually passed such an A2K treaty and included the proposed treaty language in its own domestic copyright legi
slation, it is assumed that such legislation would actually withstand a legal challenge from a WTO Panel if country Y (likely the US or the European Union) made a complaint to the WTO about such domestic legislation in X. To give one example, the proposed
 A2K treaty language would, in repeated instances, not fulfil the requirements of the infamous Berne Convention (and TRIPS and WIPO Copyright Treaty) \lquote three step\rquote  test; this test states that reproduction of copyrighted works is permitted 
\'93in certain special cases, provided that such reproduction does not conflict with a normal exploitation of the work and does not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author.\'94
 (The first (and leading) WTO panel of 2000 to examine the \lquote three step test\rquote  gave a very restricted reading (to users) of the \lquote three step\rquote  test \endash 
 and the proposed treaty language would not be in accordance with that decision.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s71\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f2\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\f56\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\f56\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  The decision is available at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\f56\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.worldtradelaw.net/dsc/panel/us-copyright(dsc" }{\f56\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000003800000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0077006f0072006c006400740072006100640065006c00610077002e006e00650074002f006400730063002f00700061006e0065006c002f00750073002d0063006f0070007900720069006700
6800740028006400730063000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b7000000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0077006f0072006c006400740072006100640065006c00610077002e006e00650074002f006400730063002f00700061006e0065006c002f00750073002d0063006f007000790072
00690067006800740028006400730063000000000000000065000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\f56\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.worldtradelaw.net/dsc/panel/us-copyright(dsc}}}{\f56\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 )(panel).pdf}}}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 ) }{\ul\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
\par It might, of course, be a valuable exercise for country X to propose draft legislation that challenged Berne Convention presumptions, to have it enacted by country X, and to \lquote fight the good fight\rquote 
 against country Y if such legislation is challenged at the WTO. And a legal defeat at a WTO panel (say on access for the visually impaired) could, in turn, form the basis for an important agitation campaign over the longer run and an expos}{
\insrsid1245199 \'e9}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490  of the rottenness of current international rules. But before country X actually enacted new copyright la}{\insrsid1245199 ws}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
 based on the proposed A2K treaty, X's legal experts would likely (if they are good lawyers!) raise the question as to whether any proposed legislation could be squared with the access restrictions of Berne and TRIPS\emdash and is not merely a \lquote 
wish list.\rquote  To do otherwise would simply be foolhardy.
\par 
\par Significantly, a number of the US copyright legal academics in attendance at the London A2K session admitted privately that
 the proposed A2K treaty would, without any doubt whatsoever, be struck down by a WTO panel for non-compliance with the Berne Convention and TRIPS. But publicly, none of these academics voiced such concerns; hearing such views might have been a sobering e
xperience for those in attendance in London. 
\par 
\par The slogan \lquote access to knowledge\rquote  is, on the surface, a slogan with which it is difficult to disagree. But to actually have any impact and import \endash  beyond being a mere \lquote feel good\rquote  and Enlightenment-based slogan \endash 
 the notion of \lquote access to knowledge\rquote  and especially the \lquote knowledge\rquote  component requires more assessment. What \lquote kn}{\insrsid1245199 owledge\rquote  are we talking about here}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 ? Why is some 
\lquote knowledge\rquote  being privileged? Who is producing \lquote knowledge\rquote  and where in the world are they doing it? What }{\insrsid1245199 are }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 the conditions that are leading to \lquote knowledge\rquote 
 production in some places \endash  and much less so elsewhere (or at least what seems to be termed as \lquote knowledge\rquote  by the A2K proponents.)? Who needs to know about such \lquote knowledge\rquote 
? These rather central questions are not addressed by A2K proponents; indeed, even asking them is discouraged. The operative and unchallenged assumption is this: the aim of an \lquote access to knowledge\rquote 
 treaty is primarily to allow users in the North and the South to access the knowledge (and the values and ideology associated with that knowledge) produced in the North. (For more on this important question, see Section 4.13 of this dossier.) 
\par 
\par In conclusion, the current A2K treaty approach is, on the one hand, t
rapped in existing legal categories, especially those prevailing in the US and Europe and wants to export them to the South. And, on the other hand, the A2K does not appreciate the restraints existing international agreements impose\'85
and does not appear to want to know as it might \lquote pop the bubble\rquote  of this project. The words voiced by some at the closing of the London session, that the A2K movement will be able to \lquote take over WIPO\rquote 
, seems rather far-fetched, and even if this fantasy was realised, would actually mean little in providing wider access to \lquote knowledge\rquote \emdash however that term is defined. 
\par 
\par While the ultimate intent of the A2K process is in question and while the A2K treaty remains fully within the scope of contemporary copyright ideology, there is an effor
t here to shift the debate, if only by a small increment, to favour the global South. Even the failure of A2K helps highlight the problems associated with copyright law at the international level and the difficulty in changing the system from within. 

\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid8723256 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid8723256 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734306}
5.8 Free software: a viable and cheaper alternative{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734306} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 Proprietary sof
tware is a serious threat to social values throughout the world, and in the global South this threat is even more virulent. First, proprietary software companies engage in anti-competitive behaviour. For example, in Africa, Microsoft gives away their soft
ware and hardware, but then ties those using their products into licensing agreements that require payments over the long term. 
\par 
\par In Argentina and Chile, the government provides credit to buy computers with proprietary software installed, but they do not provide the same credits for free software packages. The programs in Argentina and Chile are called \'93Mi PC\'94 and \'93
Mi primera PC\'94 respectively and are the result of a joint initiative between Intel, Microsoft and other smaller technology companies. Additionally, a program called \'93Partners in Learning\'94
 exists to sell discounted licences for Windows and Office to educational institutions under the condition that schools teach children to use these programs. While the program does not exclude the use of other soft
ware, most teachers are unaware of alternatives and with the limited time available simply utilize the proprietary software. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 
\par Second, when proprietary software is the primary choice made available, there is no technology transfer because the source code i
s not transferred with the technology. Given the control proprietary software firms and their business organizations (like the Business Software Alliance) have in the global South, the struggles facing the growing free software movement are immense. Howev
er, the free software movement offers an important form of resistance to the monopoly power of proprietary software and a better paradigm for the creation, distribution, and use of computer software.
\par 
\par Free software is not to be confused with open source software. While those involved in the open source movement often conflate the terms \lquote free software\rquote  and \lquote open source,\rquote 
 those working within the free software movement seek to keep the concepts and ideas distinct. The concept of free software originated with Richard Stallman, creator of the GNU licence and the free software foundation.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  For information on the history and theory behind free software visit Richard Stallman\rquote s website at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/gpl.html }{
\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0067006e0075002e006f00720067002f0063006f00700079006c006500660074002f00670070006c002e00680074006d006c00000000000000004300000100000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/gpl.html}
}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 .}}}{\insrsid7603589  Many working in the Linux tradition found the term \lquote free software\rquote  confusing (because of the connotations of the word free) and the term \lquote open source\rquote 
 was coined by Christine Peterson, President of the Foresight Institute, as a possible alternative. The term open source has since caught on.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 See: Sam Williams, Free as in Freedom: Richard Stallman\rquote s Crusade for Free Software, Beijing: O\rquote Reilly, 2002, pp.161-162. }}}{\insrsid7603589  The difference between open source and free software is described by Richard Stallman as, 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid8723256 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid8723256 
\par For the Open Source movement, the issue of whether software should be open source is a practical question, not an ethical one. As one person put it, ``Open source is a development methodology; free software is a social movement.'' For the Open 
Source movement, non-free software is a suboptimal solution. For the Free Software movement, non-free software is a social problem and free software is the solution.}{\cs18\i\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid8723256 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Richard Stallman, \'93Why Free Software is Better than Open Source,\'94 }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-software-for-freedom.html" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 
{\*\datafield 
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72006500650064006f006d002e00680074006d006c000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b7a00000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0067006e0075002e006f00720067002f007000680069006c006f0073006f007000680079002f0066007200650065002d0073006f00660074007700610072
0065002d0066006f0072002d00660072006500650064006f006d002e00680074006d006c000000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-software-for-freedom.html}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . }}}{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid8723256  
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
Thus, open source and free software are distinct entities, which reinforce one another: open source-style development is not possible i
f the software is not free, and free software is often enriched by software developed in an open source fashion. However distinct these entities are in terms of ideas and people behind them, though, the overlap between free software and software developed
 in open source fashion is large enough to say that they comprise the same programs.}{\cf1\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\cf1\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid3477471 {\insrsid7603589 
For the purposes of access to computer technology throughout the global south, both open source software and free software can offer substantial advantages over the propri
etary model. Furthermore, these movements offer an alternative to the proprietary model that is important in staking out an independent future of countries in the global South. Thus, while not perhaps typically conceptualized in terms of resistance, these
 
software movements are engaged in a form of constructive resistance. Instead of resisting through opposition, free software resists by constructing an important alternative model that can provide the global South with options beyond becoming beholden to t
he proprietary software packages of the large computer companies.
\par 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 It is clear that free software is a viable and cheaper alternative to proprietary software for the following reasons.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 These arguments are detailed by Eric Raymond, a proponent of open source software. See: Eric Raymond, The Cathedral & the Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open Source by an Accidental Revolutionary (Beijing: O\rquote Reilly, 1999.)}}}{\insrsid7603589 
 First, as a general rule, deploying free software is cheaper than a proprietary software package. While 
it is possible for the person with whom the software originates to charge whatever they like for the software, this person cannot keep the user from redistributing the software for free. The consequence is that the price of a copy sinks quickly. For examp
le, the GNU/Linux operating system can be downloaded from the Internet for free and distributed without consequences unlike proprietary software. 
\par 
\par Second, because there are no restrictions on how
 many copies can be made, free software and open source software eliminate the concept of piracy and the legal costs of implementing a software package are reduced considerably. Third, most computer programmers agree that free software is more reliable an
d
 secure, reducing costs for computer shutdowns and security patches. Under the proprietary model a user must wait for the software company to address these issues, which may not happen immediately. For example, when a new security hole is found in the Mic
r
osoft system, one must wait until Microsoft issues a patch for the hole before it can be fixed. Not so with software package where any number of programmers may issue the patch themselves. Fourth, open source or free software allows a government agency or
 company to create their own adaptations that tailor the software to their needs, something that is illegal under proprietary software agreements. The ability to tailor software allows companies to remain autonomous of the software companies.}{
\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid.}}}{\insrsid7603589  Howev
er, it is important to remember that free software is about more than the cost. It's a matter of freedom, independence and local capacity. Only by understanding proprietary software within the larger political economy can the true potential of free softwa
re and open source as tools for economic liberation be seen. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 
Instead of wasting resources developing anti-piracy strategies and policing the use of software, one can simply shift to a type of software where these tactics are unnecessary. Open source and f
ree software allows us to rethink our ideas of property rights and is an important aspect of any future innovation model.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Steven Weber, The Success of Open Source, Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 2004. Weber argues the open source allows us to radically rethink our ideas about property. }}}{\insrsid7603589 
 Furthermore, open source and free software highlight that those who suggest a proprietary model is the only or the best way to proceed are simply wrong. Free software constitutes clear and incontestable e
vidence that the contention that the production of quality software depends on the enforcement of strong copyright, and that innovation depends on patents is wrong. Free Software signs strong copyright away in order to fuel production and innovation and h
as produced a better product in the process.
\par }{\insrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid3477471 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid3477471 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734307}5.9 The Creative Commons approach
{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734307} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par Creative Commons (CC) licences are a relatively new phenomenon and are growing in importance and popularity, including across the South. This section
 gives a brief backgrounder on CC and its various licences and then essentially lists, in a preliminary way, some of the pros and cons of this approach.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 The main website of CC is http://creativecommons.org/.}}}{\insrsid7603589  
\par }{\insrsid3477471 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid3477471 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 What are }{
\f1\fs24\insrsid9309490 the }{\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 Creative Commons and what types of licences do they provide?
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par From Wikipedia:
\par }{\insrsid3477471\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid3477471 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid3477471\charrsid7747762 
The Creative Commons (CC) is a non-profit organization devoted to expanding the range of creative work available for others to legally build upon and share \'85 The Creative Commons website enables
 copyright holders to grant some of their rights to the public while retaining others, through a variety of licensing and contract schemes, which may include dedication to the public domain or open content licensing terms. The intention is to avoid the pr
oblems which current copyright laws create for the sharing of information.
\par 
\par Creative Commons was officially launched in 2001. Lawrence Lessig, the founder and chairman of Creative Commons, started the organization as an additional method of achieving the go
als of his Supreme Court case, Eldred v. Ashcroft. The initial set of Creative Commons' licences was published on 16 December 2002. 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid3477471 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }{\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 The Creative Commons Licence refers to the name of several copyright licences released on December 16, 2002 by Creative Commons, a US nonprofit corporation founded in 2001.
\par 
\par These licences all grant certain baseline rights, such as the right to distribute the copyrighted work on file sharing networks. The copyright holder has the option of specifying certain extra conditions:
\par 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}}\pard \ql \fi-360\li360\ri0\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls39\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid3477471 {\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
Attribution (by): Permit others to copy, distribute, display, and perform the work and derivative works based upon it only if they give you credit. 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}Noncommercial (nc): Permit others to copy, distribute, display, and perform the work and derivative w
orks based upon it only for noncommercial purposes. 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}
No Derivative Works (nd): Permit others to copy, distribute, display and perform only verbatim copies of the work, not derivative works based upon it. 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f2\fs22\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \hich\af2\dbch\af0\loch\f2 o\tab}Share Alike (sa): Permit others to distribute d
erivative works only under a licence identical to the licence that governs your work. (See also copyleft.) 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \s28\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid3477471 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
Mixing and matching these conditions produces sixteen possible combinations, of which eleven are valid Creative Commons licences. Of the five invalid combinations, four include both the \lquote nd\rquote  and \lquote sa\rquote 
 clauses, which are mutually exclusive; and one includes none of the clauses, which is equivalent to releasing one's work into the public domain. The five licences without the Attribution clause are being
 phased out because 98% of licensors requested Attribution.
\par }\pard \s28\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid3477471 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 
The pros and cons of CC licences in the South
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par In favour of Creative Commons licences, there are several arguments. CC licences demonstrate a positive attitude towards the sharing of (and wider access to) \lquote knowledge\rquote 
 and information. CC licences provide some alternatives for authors and other creators, such as musicians, to some of the traditional proprietary presumptions of copyright law. This is obviously positive and we endorse those who wish t
o break away from the \lquote traditional\rquote  model which allows publishers, recording companies and other large rightsholders to hold unchallenged authority over distribution.
\par 
\par When persons use a CC licence -either as a creator or as a user \endash  they }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 may become}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  more o
pen to appreciating how traditional copyright restrictions and restraints block access. In other words, CC }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 may }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
provide a reformist window that will open up into a wider and systemic critique of the existing system. At the same time \endash  see the section below \endash  CC users }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 may}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
, in the alternative, become more entrenched as to the purported societal benefits of copyright. It will be interesting to watch which strand and which ideology triumphs. 
\par 
\par However, there are some disadvantages and some questions that need to be asked as well. CC licences privilege the position of the author as is done in the traditional copyright paradigm: she/he (and not the wider society or users generally) is }{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 the sole person}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  who decides whether and how and to what extent a work is accessib
le. This is not surprising as CC operates within the ideological presumptions of copyright; as explained on its website, CC \'93offers a flexible copyright for creative work }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 91 \\f "Symbol"
 \\s 11}{\fldrslt\f3\fs22}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \'85}{\cs29\cf19\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 93 \\f "Symbol" \\s 11}{\fldrslt\f3\fs22}}}{
\cs29\cf19\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  Creative Commons}{\lang9\langfe2057\langnp9\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  offers a flexible range of protections and freedoms for authors and artists. We have built upon the \lquote 
all rights reserved\rquote  of traditional copyright to create a voluntary \lquote some rights reserved copyright\rquote .\'94}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  In other words, an actual or potential user of the 
work is required to accede to the access/use decisions made solely by the author \'85 who is the person holding copyright. 
\par 
\par CC also privileges the notion of the desirability of creating property rights in expressions; cultural and literary products are consi
dered as commodities, albeit ones that the creator can decide (or not decide) to make accessible, much like a person can decide whether or not to invite someone into her or his house. As Lessig writes, \'93I am fanatically pro-market, in the market
\rquote s proper sphere. I don\rquote t doubt the important and valuable role played by property in most, maybe just about all contexts.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Lessig, The Future of Ideas, p.6.}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  
\par 
\par There is wide variety of CC licences and some of them change traditional access and use provisions by a 
relatively small degree. One emerging issue that should be of concern is that the increasing numbers of licensing options may become confusing and create additional costs for the use of software.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  R. van Wendel de Joode, J.A. de Bruijn and M.J.G. van Eete
n, Protecting the Virtual Commons: Self-Organizing Open Source and Free Software Communities and Innovative Intellectual Property Regimes, The Hague: T.M.C. Asser Press, 2003. They discuss the types of software licences out there.}}}{
\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  This concern should be watched as the types of licences may become even more complex and confusing until a single model is settled upon.}{\insrsid14305830\charrsid7747762 
\par }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par It is unlikely that more than a tiny percentage of the works created on a global basis in any year will be available 
under CC licences. Will the percentage be even less within the South? This seems likely. Hence, CC licences will be of limited value in meeting the expansive access needs of the South in the near future. Nor do CC licences provide access to }{
\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 already published}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  works or music that are still restricted by copyright laws; these form the overwhelmingly majority of current material. 
\par 
\par Focusing on CC licences }{\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 may}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762  potentially sideline or detour people from analysing how existing copyright laws block access and how p
olicy changes on a societal level, rather than the actions of individual \lquote good guys\rquote 
, are the key to improving access and the related problems of copyright laws and ideology which are discussed elsewhere in this draft dossier. Nor does the individualised C
C approach challenge the fact that most works are produced by employees, not self-employed persons, and hence are usually owned by their employees. Nor does it confront the fact that many creators (e.g. most musicians, most academic authors) may be requir
ed, because of unequal bargaining power, to assign copyright in their own work to a record company or publisher as a condition of getting their work produced or published. 
\par 
\par In his own writings, Larry Lessig does not take a critical stance towards copyright itself and he argues that developed copyright systems are close to a pre-requisite for cultural production. He writes: \'93
Copyright is a critical part of the process of creativity; a great deal of creativity would not exist without the protections of the law\'85.And as it (copyright) has expanded, it has expanded the opportunities for creativity.\'94}{
\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Lessig, Future of Ideas, pp. 107-108. }}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 This approach denies the great amount of work that is produced without the motivations of copyright (e.g. the work of most a
cademics), the examples of creative work produced across Asia and Africa (discussed in Section 3 of this dossier), and the work of indigenous peoples. 
\par 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 Given the greatly reduced levels of Internet access in the South (which is the result of many technical
 and economic factors) and given that most works under CC licences are available \endash  often solely available \endash  on the Internet, what is the future and value of CC licences in the South? 
\par 
\par While there are certainly concerns with the Creative Commons licensing 
paradigm, the Copy/South working group has multiple perspectives to offer on the subject. For example, in India, the concept of a creative commons does not resolve the problems associated with the current copyright system. Piracy in India allows access to
 
knowledge and access to creative work and while the Creative Commons may ultimately help provide this, it will not provide the necessary transition. Furthermore, for India, copyright enforcement is characterized by massive and daily violent raids. In such
 a climate, access to creative commons licensing will do little to resolve the conflicts and a more direct approach to the issue of piracy and the benefits of piracy for India is needed. 
\par 
\par However, the use of Creative Commons licensing in Brazil offers an e
xciting possibility to broaden access to cultural work. According to Ronaldo Lemos, the meaning of Creative Commons in Brazil is very different from that of the United States. In Brazil, the idea of Creative Commons is linked to a larger movement regardin
g media decentralization. For Brazilians, the Creative Commons licence will be used to \lquote take over the power of the catalogue\rquote 
 and ultimately it is hoped to end the culture industry as it exists today in Brazil. These efforts are especially prevalent in the 
Brazilian music scene. In music, parallel industries are emerging in part because traditional music available under copyright and centrally owned by the major labels is not working. Specifically, the centralized culture industry doesn\rquote 
t release Brazilian m
usic in part because the major labels are owned and operated by the large multinationals that control most music world-wide and these industries are not interested in the Brazilian market for local music. The Canto Livre movement is an important response 
as outlined below.
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid3477471 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid3477471 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734308}
5.10 The Canto Livre example from Brazil}{\cs18\b0\fs28\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid3477471 {\*\bkmkend _Toc135734308} }{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid3477471 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par Brazil has been active in staking out the territory of resistance to the intellectual property model advocated by the United States. One exciting opportunity emerging from Brazil is the experimentation happening between the creative commons licensing, Bra
zilian music, and new models of music creation and sharing. The Canto Livre project is one such example. Ronaldo Lemos describes the project as aiming at, \'93
building an open creative environment for Brazilian music, relying on the idea of sharing and remixing, on the possibilities of collective creation, and on intellectual generosity.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Ronaldo Lemos, \lquote Brazil\rquote s Canto Livre Project: The Emergence of Society\rquote s Creativity,\rquote  World Information: IP City Edition, }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://static.world-information.org/infopaper/wi_ipcityedition.pdf" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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690070006300690074007900650064006900740069006f006e002e007000640066000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b8600000068007400740070003a002f002f007300740061007400690063002e0077006f0072006c0064002d0069006e0066006f0072006d006100740069006f006e002e006f00720067002f
0069006e0066006f00700061007000650072002f00770069005f00690070006300690074007900650064006900740069006f006e002e0070006400660000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://static.world-information.org/infopaper/wi_ipcityedition.pdf}
}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . 2005. }}}{\insrsid7603589  Canto Livre means \'93free singing\'94 or \'93free corner\'94 in Portuguese, but the emphasis is on the ways in which culture are shared, not necessarily free of charge.
\par 
\par According to Lemos, there is an entire parallel music industry emerging in Brazil taking place on the fringes of the intellectual property markets. One important example is the tecno-brega phenomenon, found in the city of Bel\'e9m in the state of Par\'e1
. The tecno-brega scene turns the copyright industry upside down. Instead of the CD being the focus of copyright protection and the final product, the tecno-brega movement uses the CD as an advertising tool and musicians make their money from their live
 concerts and creating \lquote real-time\rquote  CDs of the large musical dance parties associated with the music.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid.}}}{
\insrsid7603589  
\par 
\par The transformation of industry is an important paradigm for music generation and exchange in the }{\insrsid1245199 global south. As Lemos states, \'93S}{\insrsid7603589 uch }{\insrsid1245199 \lquote }{\insrsid7603589 under the radar}{\insrsid1245199 
\rquote }{\insrsid7603589  institutional arrangements can play an important role in reshaping the interplay between media, culture and the role of IP rights in the developing world. That is especially true when one considers th}{\insrsid1245199 
at in fact }{\insrsid7603589 in the examples such as the one above, copyright is simply not a factor. In this sort of business model, }{\insrsid1245199 \lquote }{\insrsid7603589 piracy}{\insrsid1245199 \rquote }{\insrsid7603589 
 is either irrelevant or economically impracticable.\'94
\par 
\par Ultimately, what the tecno-brega example illustrates is that creation does and can occur outside the copyright maxim
alist paradigm of the global North. Additionally, it serves as a model for how vibrant, creative and innovative music can be once released from the confines of the huge multinationals that tend to dominate the internation}{\insrsid1245199 
al and many local music scenes}{\insrsid7603589 . 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid3477471 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734309}
5.11 Open access journals and open archiving initiatives{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734309} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par The concept of Open Access has gained popularity in the global South recently. In September of 2005 the \'93Open Access for Developing Countries\'94 international seminar was hel
d in Salvador Bahia, Brazil. The seminar was sponsored by the Latin American and Caribbean Center on Health Sciences Information, the Pan American Health Organization and the World Health Organization. The seminar resulted in the \'93
Salvador Declaration on Open Access: The Developing World Perspective.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Available at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.icml9.org/meetings/openaccess/public/documents/declaration.htm" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000004a00000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e00690063006d006c0039002e006f00720067002f006d0065006500740069006e00670073002f006f00700065006e006100630063006500730073002f007000750062006c00690063002f006400
6f00630075006d0065006e00740073002f006400650063006c00610072006100740069006f006e002e00680074006d000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b9400000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e00690063006d006c0039002e006f00720067002f006d0065006500740069006e00670073
002f006f00700065006e006100630063006500730073002f007000750062006c00690063002f0064006f00630075006d0065006e00740073002f006400650063006c00610072006100740069006f006e002e00680074006d0000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
http://www.icml9.org/meetings/openaccess/public/documents/declaration.htm}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . }}}{\insrsid7603589 
\par 
\par The Declaration includes the following mandates:}{\cf20\insrsid7603589 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 1.\tab}}\pard \qj \fi-360\li360\ri0\sb100\sa100\sbauto1\saauto1\widctlpar
\jclisttab\tx360\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\ls32\adjustright\rin0\lin360\itap0\pararsid3477471 {\insrsid7603589 Scientific and technological research is essential for social and economic development. }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid7603589 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 2.\tab}}{\insrsid7603589 
Scientific communication is a crucial and inherent part of the activities of research and development. Science advances more effectively when there is unrestricted access to scientific information. 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 3.\tab}More broadly, open access enables education and use of scientific information by the public. 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 4.\tab}In a world that is increasingly globalised, with science claiming to be universal, exclusion fr
om access to information is not acceptable. It is important that access be considered as a universal right, independent of any region. 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 5.\tab}Open Access must facilitate developing countries' active participation in the worldwide exchange of scientific inform
ation, including free access to the heritage of scientific knowledge, effective participation in the process of generation and dissemination of knowledge, and strengthening the coverage of topics of direct relevance to developing countries. 
\par {\listtext\pard\plain\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\langfenp2057\insrsid7603589 \hich\af56\dbch\af0\loch\f56 6.\tab}Developing 
countries already have pioneering initiatives that promote Open Access and therefore they should play an important role in shaping Open Access worldwide.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Ibid.}}}{
\insrsid7603589  
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 However, despite general agreement on the part of the developing world that open access is k
ey to scientific development, groups in the developed world have responded by suggesting that open access is dangerous to scientific innovation and will destroy already existing peer-reviewed journals.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 David Dickson, \lquote Open Access Deemed \lquote Dangerous\rquote  by Royal Society,\rquote  SciDevNet, November 24, 2005. Available at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 HYPERLINK "http://www.scidev.net/News/index.cfm?fuseaction=readnews&itemid=2498&language=1" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000005000000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e007300630069006400650076002e006e00650074002f004e006500770073002f0069006e006400650078002e00630066006d003f00660075007300650061006300740069006f006e003d007200
6500610064006e0065007700730026006900740065006d00690064003d00320034003900380026006c0061006e00670075006100670065003d0031000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90ba000000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e007300630069006400650076002e006e00650074002f004e
006500770073002f0069006e006400650078002e00630066006d003f00660075007300650061006300740069006f006e003d0072006500610064006e0065007700730026006900740065006d00690064003d00320034003900380026006c0061006e00670075006100670065003d00310000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {
\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.scidev.net/News/index.cfm?fuseaction=readnews&itemid=2498&language=1}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
. Some complained that the Royal Society did not understand the distinction between open access and open archiving. For more on open archiving see: }{\cs32\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Leslie Chan,\~Barbara Kirsop, and Subbiah Arunachalam}{
\cs32\insrsid8483307\charrsid1267907 , \lquote Open}{\cs29\b\insrsid8483307\charrsid1267907  }{\cs29\insrsid8483307\charrsid1267907 Access }{\cs29\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Archiving: the fast track to building res
earch capacity in developing countries,\rquote  Science Development Network, Available at}{\cs29\b\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 : }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\cs29\b\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.scidev.net/ms/openaccess/" }{
\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
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740070003a002f002f007700770077002e007300630069006400650076002e006e00650074002f006d0073002f006f00700065006e006100630063006500730073002f0000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.scidev.net/ms/openaccess/}}}{
\cs29\b\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 In response to the royal society statement, 42 fellows of the Royal Society issued a letter criticising the statement. See: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.frsopenletter.org/" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000001e00000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e006600720073006f00700065006e006c00650074007400650072002e006f00720067002f000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b3c00000068007400740070003a002f002f0077007700
77002e006600720073006f00700065006e006c00650074007400650072002e006f00720067002f0000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.frsopenletter.org/}}}{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 . }}}{\insrsid7603589 
\par 
\par To date Open Access scholarly communication initiatives have centred on two types of activities, namely, statements of support for Open Access and the establishment of digital archives or repositories.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote 
\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Adrian K. Ho and Charles W. Bailey, Jr. \lquote }{\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Open Access Webliography.\rquote  Available at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {
\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.escholarlypub.com/cwb/oaw.htm" }{\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000002900000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0065007300630068006f006c00610072006c0079007000750062002e0063006f006d002f006300770062002f006f00610077002e00680074006d000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b
5200000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0065007300630068006f006c00610072006c0079007000750062002e0063006f006d002f006300770062002f006f00610077002e00680074006d0000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {
\cs19\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.escholarlypub.com/cwb/oaw.htm}}}{\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
. The authors list resources available through the open access movement. Baily has also published \lquote The Open Access Bibliography: Liberating Scholarly Literature with E-Prints and Open Access Journals,\rquote  Available at: }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.escholarlypub.com/oab/oab.htm" }{\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000002900000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0065007300630068006f006c00610072006c0079007000750062002e0063006f006d002f006f00610062002f006f00610062002e00680074006d000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b
5200000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e0065007300630068006f006c00610072006c0079007000750062002e0063006f006d002f006f00610062002f006f00610062002e00680074006d0000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {
\cs19\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.escholarlypub.com/oab/oab.htm}}}{\fs20\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid7603589  These two activities are not mutually e
xclusive, but one does not logically follow from the other either. For instance, statements of support (say at a country level) cannot be read as automatically entailing the wide-scale creation of digital archives. Similarly, the creation of digital archi
ves might not be accompanied by explicit statements of support from the institution developing the archive.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 Digital archive is referred to here in a generic way, entailing both journals and stand alone articles, papers (or other works) not \lquote wrapped\rquote  in journal format.}}}{\insrsid7603589  
\par 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid3477471 {\insrsid7603589 
Explicit statement of support for OA }{\insrsid3477471 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 232 \\f "Wingdings" \\s 11}{\fldrslt\f10\fs22}}}{\insrsid7603589  }{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 174 \\f "Symbol" \\s 10}{\fldrslt\f3\fs20}}}{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  denotes \lquote leads to\rquote }}}{\insrsid7603589  Digital Archive creation
\par NOR
\par Digital Archive creation }{\insrsid3477471 {\field{\*\fldinst SYMBOL 232 \\f "Wingdings" \\s 11}{\fldrslt\f10\fs22}}}{\insrsid7603589  Explicit statement of support for OA
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 
\par That said, two schools of thought exist within the Open Access scholarly communication arena; that of the journal reform school, and the self-archiving school, and both can be regarded as alternative models for access to academic and scienti
fic information, and hence, as \lquote open archiving initiatives\rquote .}{\insrsid3477471 
\par }{\insrsid7603589  
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid3477471 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid3477471 Open Access Journals

\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par The central tenet for any Open Access journal is that the subscriber (reader) does not pay to access the intellectual content of the journal. The latter is the necessary c
ondition for its status as an Open Access journal. Other conditions may apply but may not always be invoked. One such condition, regarded as a revenue stream, is for research authors to pay article processing fees.}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn 
{\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{
\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 The \lquote article processing fee\rquote  is analogous to the \lquote page fee\rquote 
 familiar to most actively publishing academic authors. However, the terminology differs at an ideological level, where the \lquote article processing fee\rquote  is propounded by (some) OA proponents, and the \lquote page fee\rquote 
 denotes the model used in the paid-subscription based journal model.}}}{\insrsid7603589 
 Another condition may be the length of time elapsed between the writing of a research piece, and making it available via an Open Access forum. There are differing views on this, but the generally accepted timeframe is anywhere between \lquote immediately
\rquote  or \lquote six months after\rquote  the creation of the piece. The latter \lquote timeframe\rquote  argument is usually invoked with self-archiving, rather than OA journals.
\par 
\par From the perspective of the South, OA journals that require Article Processing fees may defeat the purpose of the shift from the traditional journal. While the end user may have \lquote free\rquote 
 access to the materials, global South researchers may be unable to contribute to these journals because the processing fees could be too prohibitive. The latter has implications for their entry into the science system.
\par 
\par Some OA publishers, such as BioMed Central, allow institutional memberships, which mean that authors from member institutions are exempted from the article processing fee. Starting i
n 2003, institutions, especially from developing countries, have become members of BioMedCentral with funding support from the Open Society Institute. However, it is doubtful that this funding can be sustained in the long-term. Once the funding is unavail
able, the access is also ended and it is unclear how the South can sustain participation. 
\par }{\insrsid3477471 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid3477471 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid9309490 Self-archiving
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par Self-archiving takes the form of researchers making versions}{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{\lang1033\langfe2057\langnp1033\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
Whether it is a pre-print, post-print, etc depends on the institution\rquote s archiving policy.}}}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 of their research output available in what are called institutional repositories, and/or subject or topic-based archives. As the names denote, institutional repositories are created by research institutions, usually higher education in
stitutions or science councils. Subject/topic-based archives are usually created by discipline-based scholars for their research community, with funding from either scholarly societies or other interested funders. Another type of institutional repository 
is referred to as an ETD (Electronic Theses and Dissertations) repository, where only the research works of postgraduate students are made available. The term \lquote institutional repository\rquote 
 usually denotes that academic research staff are also making their works available in that repository, and it is thus not limited to postgraduate works.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s4\ql \li0\ri0\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel3\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid3477471 \b\f56\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\f1\fs24\insrsid7603589\charrsid7219467 Questions from the South

\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
\par There are two key and pressing issues for the South in self-archiving their works. One is content-oriented, the other infrastructure-oriented. The 
first (content-oriented) matter has to do with publisher agreements between authors and publishers. Many developing countries have small yet sustained scholarly publishing industries (existing outside of the large STM publishers arena), and the extent }{
\insrsid12401674 to }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 which small publishers are negotiating copyright terms with developing country authors}{\insrsid12401674  is unclear}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
. There is much international pressure for multinational publishers to change their copyright agreements, and for them to support OA self-archiving. The results
 of the RoMEo study attest to this. It is unclear however how amenable small publishing establishments, especially in developing countries, are to OA self-archiving. 
\par 
\par The second (infrastructure-oriented) issue centres on the required technical skills with
in a developing country to set up and maintain digital archives. These technical skills may be quite limited given that skilled technical staff migrate to other parts of the globe; prefer working outside of the higher education / research sector; or lack 
sufficient skills to create and maintain their own digital archives using established open source software. Another infrastructure-oriented issue frequently mentioned is the lack of affordable bandwidth capacity in developing countries.
\par 
\par It cannot simply be
 stated as yet which model(s) is or are the best for those in the South, since both primary models have issues which need to be addressed. However, the concept of open access is a subtle form of resistance to copyright. The growing popularity of open acce
ss suggests that academics are beginning to understand th}{\insrsid12401674 at}{\insrsid7603589\charrsid7747762 
 copyright can stand as a barrier to the diffusion of their academic work and it may be the case that an open access model will be a viable alternative.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid3477471 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid3477471 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734310}5.12 Co-ordinating activities a
cross the South{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734310} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par Local organizations are forming with links to the surrounding communities, to international NGOs and to international bodies such as WIPO. Thus, the network of resistance grows outward and upward. The Internet and email is an
 important tool for communicating strategies and linking to other groups around the world. Meetings and conferences at all levels (local, regional, international) help bring together people interested in similar issues and provide strategies for moving fo
rward. Increasingly, WIPO has become a forum for indigenous peoples to meet and develop a common strategy. The same can be said of developing countries who are attempting to use WIPO to help formulate their needs at the international level. 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 There are nume
rous strategies that are being employed to resist the expansion of intellectual property. First, direct action against entities attempting to assert strong intellectual property rights are utilized. These tactics are perhaps most visible in the access to 
medicines struggle in South Africa. Public protests, marches, and acts of civil disobedience are all part of the direct action. }{\insrsid12401674 Global}{\insrsid7603589  protests have also used street theatre and humour to highlight the issues.
\par 
\par Second, trying to control the way intellectual
 property is discussed is an important strategy. Activists successfully made access to medicine an issue of human rights instead of piracy of intellectual property rights. The same can be said to be true about the use of the term biopiracy and bio-colonia
lism, both of which turn the rhetorical advantage to those resisting intellectual property rights. }{\fs56\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 
\par Third, activists have developed networks that transcend local areas and integrate the south with the north, local with global, and developed with developing. These networks can be mobilized along many fronts to facilitate action. 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid3477471 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid3477471 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734311}5.13 Satire and }{
\b0\fs28\insrsid9309490 a}{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid3477471 rt as }{\b0\fs28\insrsid9309490 r}{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid3477471 esistance{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734311} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid4081487 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par The World Intellectual Property Organization published a comic book in 2001 depicting the problems with piracy and why people around the world should adhere to copyright law. In the comic, Marco wants to be a musician 
but his parents are against the idea because there is no money in music. Marco comes to understand that in fact he could make a living as a musician if only copyright were respected. 
\par 
\par In response to this piece of copyright ideology, the Alternative Law Ce
nter in Bangalore, India produced its own version of the comic telling the story of the public domain and the essential need to share and copy from each other. Such satire helps highlight the flaws in the copyright story and expresses an alternative visio
n of the world that may otherwise be difficult to see. In that way activists are able to assert control over the way the general public perceives creativity. }{\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  See: }
{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  HYPERLINK "http://www.altlawforum.org/lawmedia/CC.pdf" }}{\fldrslt {\cs19\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.altlawforum.org/lawmedia/CC.pdf}}}{
\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }}}{\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 
\par Art is also being 
used in an attempt to develop public consciousness regarding copyright and its impact. The World Information City Project is hosting public domain art in city streets throughout Bangalore, India in an attempt to highlight the problems of copyright.}{
\cs18\super\insrsid7603589 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  See: http://world-information.org/wio/program/events/1131370562}}}{\insrsid7603589 
 The art included in this dossier is a final example of art as resistance that can help render the problems associated with a copyright maximalist position visible.
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid4081487 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid4081487 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734312}5.14 Co-operation 
in the South as part of wider }{\b0\fs28\insrsid4081487\charrsid4081487 intellectual property activism}{\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid4081487 {\*\bkmkend _Toc135734312}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\faauto\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 At the international level \endash  in resistance to TRIPS and the WTO \endash 
 there is significant overlap between groups that all have an interest in seeing intellectual property law change. F
or example, resisting the expansion of TRIPS brings environmental activists and HIV-AIDS activists together over issues of patent rights. However, these forms of cooperation do not replace the autonomy of these organizations in many other areas. The relat
ionship between these types of groups is perhaps better described as a network than a partnership. However, when interests coincide within the broader IP framework, activists work together to resist. }{\insrsid3282187 
\par \page }{\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 \page }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid14050017 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid4081487 \b\i\f1\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid7603589\charrsid12127175 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734313}SECTION }{
\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid12127175\charrsid12127175 6}{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid7603589\charrsid12127175  \endash  CONCLUDING THE DOSSIER}{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid12127175\charrsid12127175  }{\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid7603589\charrsid12127175 \'85 AND LOOKING AHEAD
{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734313} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid4081487 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid4081487 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734314}6.1 Some closing words
{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734314}
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid6751219 
\par We hope that you have found the Copy/South dossier a productive \endash  and provocative \endash  reading experience. As stated in the opening sections, we do }{\i\insrsid6751219\charrsid919540 not }{\insrsid6751219 think we have provided 
all of the answers to some very complicated questions. Nor have we even asked all of the most important questions. And these brief words of closing do }{\i\insrsid6751219\charrsid919540 not }{\insrsid6751219 
attempt to sum up all that has been included in the dossier or try to draw tightly-formulated, programmatic conclusions about the precise way ahead. Instead, we mostly ask further questions and suggest some further areas of research. 
\par 
\par More than 70 years ago, the American legal scholar Felix Cohen pointed out how certain legal words and concepts had cloud
ed our thinking about the reasons why we have particular laws and, in particular, what their social purposes were supposed to be. Such words, such as \lquote property rights\rquote  and \lquote fair value\rquote , had become what Cohen called magic \'93
solving words\'94 which, when used to try to resolve social issues, often simply became \'93transcendental nonsense.\'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid6751219 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  }{
\cs27\fs20\cf1\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 Felix S. Cohen, \lquote Transcendental Nonsense and the Functional Approach\rquote , 35 Columbia Law Review 809, (1935), p. 820. }}}{\insrsid6751219  The word \lquote copyright\rquote 
 has taken on the same status today. As soon as they are evoked in conversation, the word and the concept \lquote copyright\rquote  suddenly become some kind of purported or logical explanation \endash  in other words, magic \'93solving words\'94 \endash 
 as to why certain things in the world cannot happen}{\insrsid12127175  }{\insrsid6751219 \'85}{\insrsid12127175  }{\insrsid6751219 and why other things do. Why should nursing sisters and public health professionals in South Africa}{\insrsid12401674 
 be required to pay royalty}{\insrsid6751219  fees to publishers so that they can distribute printed materials to students and patients about how to avoid 
HIV/AIDS? In the face of this shocking pandemic, why should the circulation of such truly life-saving information be restricted? The answer: copyright laws dictate they must pay royalty charges to a collecting society and, in any event, without copyright,
 no one would have an incentive to write and produce such materials. Or why cannot the tens of millions of visually impaired persons across the South \endash  more than ten million in India alone \endash 
 change the format of a book or magazine so that they, as well as sighted persons, can read it? The answer: taking such a step is called \lquote reproducing the work\rquote  in copyright legalese and this is \lquote a right\rquote 
 that only the copyright holder can exercise. Or why is }{\insrsid11600554 a }{\insrsid6751219 country such as Mexico allowed to extend the term of copyright to the life of the author, plus 100 years \'85
 meaning a song written today by a 20 year old composer would still be an item of exclusive private property in the year 2166? The answer, reply copyright\rquote s supporters, is that Article 7(6) of the Berne Conventio
n of 1886, (now part of the TRIPS Agreement of 1994) sets no maximum on the term or duration of copyright and the Berne Convention is an international treaty that is basically 'unamendable' because all of its 160 odd signatory countries members must unani
mously agree before any changes can be made. 
\par 
\par We in the Copy/South group say these answers are simply \'93nonsense\'94, transcendentally and otherwise. And there is a great deal of other related nonsense that is being said today about copyright that needs to be 
examined, remembering at the same time that copyright is a \lquote created\rquote  legal category which is of rather recent historical lineage, involves the state establishing a limited monopoly \lquote right\rquote 
 usually owned by a large corporations (a fact seldom mentioned by so-called \lquote free marketers\rquote 
 who say they believe in keeping the state out of the marketplace) and was simply absent from most parts of the South, where more than three/quarters of the world\rquote s population lives, until very recently \'85 and still has foothold onl
y in some urban areas and leading commercial sectors. In other words, copyright is not something natural or universal like the sun coming up. On this point, we would be the first to admit that looking at a range of access and cultural issues in the South 
through the lens of copyright has its own limitations and believe that future research needs to be more inter-disciplinary. 
\par 
\par On the economic front and the question of the supposed benefits of establishing \lquote mature\rquote  copyright regimes in the South, we are reminded of how the now \lquote reformed\rquote 
 American consultant John Perkins describes the job he did for several decades on behalf of US corporations in the South: formulate unattainable economic plans (or \'93visions\'94) and plot the way to a \'93glorious future\'94 for countr
ies such as the kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In his current best-selling book, }{\i\insrsid6751219\charrsid14907984 Confessions of an Economic Hit Man}{\insrsid6751219 
, Perkins writes how he approached the planning of new utilities, such as new electrical generating plants: 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 {\insrsid6751219 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid6751219 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid6751219\charrsid6751219 I always kept in mind the true object
ives: maximizing payouts to U.S. firms and making Saudi Arabia increasingly dependent on the United States. It did not take me long to realize how closely the two went together; almost all of the newly developed projects would require continual upgrading 
and servicing and they were so highly technical as to assure the companies that originally developed them would have to maintain and modernise them.}{\cs18\i\super\insrsid6751219\charrsid6751219 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain 
\s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 
 John Perkins, Confessions of an Economic Hit Man ( London: Ebery Press, 2005) p.87 }}}{\i\insrsid6751219\charrsid6751219 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li1200\ri512\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin512\lin1200\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid6751219 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri512\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin512\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 {\insrsid6751219\charrsid3172691 Is }{\insrsid6751219 
copyright expansion any different than expanding electrical power stations? The determined effort by both the United States and the European Union to ensnare the global South into the web of international copyright relations is not, }{
\i\insrsid6751219\charrsid2497612 it cannot be said too often}{\insrsid6751219 , an effort by them to either promote internal economic growth in the South or, for example, to build markets for the music of Indian musicians in Boston or Berlin\'85
or certainly for anyone other than a few \lquote stars\rquote  working for multi-national recording co
mpanies. On economic issues, we consider that the analysis done for Section 2 of this dossier is only a small start on these and other pressing questions. We would appreciate more assistance in developing our thinking. We understand that an economic agenc
y
 in Brazil has just begun to generate economic studies on North/South intellectual property trade flows and we await their results with interest. As well, more work on the economic benefits of implementing free computer software in the South is needed. Th
is is a technology that will not require \'93continuing upgrading\'94 as with the Microsoft ethos. 
\par 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 {\insrsid6751219 
On the question of access to educational materials, which is also closely related to financial questions and is another focus of this dossier, we note that one of
 the eight Millennium Development Goals established at the United Nations Millennium Summit in September 2000 is to achieve universal primary school education for all girls and boys by the year 2015. It is hard to disagree with the recent speech delivered
 in Mozambique by the United Kingdom\rquote s Chancellor Gordon Brown when he said that \'93it is one of the world\rquote s greatest scandals that today \'85 two-thirds of Africa\rquote s children never complete a primary education \'85
 (and are) denied one of the most basic rights of all, the right to an education. \'94}{\cs18\super\insrsid6751219 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Will Woodward, \lquote Chancellor pledges record UK aid package,\'94 The Guardian (London), 10 April 2006. 
}}}{\insrsid6751219  Yet children and young people going to school at all levels, including university, require good reading and library materi
als. And they will also need to be both affordable and plentiful, which raises the copyright question. When newly-independent countries of the South asked in the 1960}{\insrsid12401674 \rquote }{\insrsid6751219 
s that educational materials be exempted from copyright so that they could attain wider levels of primary education in their initial phase of nation building, it was the powerful British book}{\insrsid12401674  publishing industry which }{\insrsid6751219 
was the most vocal \endash  and u}{\insrsid12401674 ltimately successful \endash  opponent}{\insrsid6751219  of what was called \'93heresy\'94 at the time. And what of the next decade 
in the South? Will work on this goal of universal primary education be an occasion for an added \lquote feeding frenzy\rquote  by publishers, international (including British) and domestic? One hesitates to believe that Gordon Brown, likely Britain
\rquote s next Prime Minister
, will rein them in or ensure that education comes before corporate profits. (A recent article by the noted African economist Samir Amin on the Millennium Development Goals has exposed what is behind such millennium goals and criticises the turn to privat
isation and neo-liberal ideology; it is an article that deserves attention.}{\cs18\super\insrsid6751219 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\cs18\fs20\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Samir Amin, \lquote The Millennium Development Goals: A Critique from the South\rquote 
, Monthly Review, March 2006 }{\field\flddirty{\*\fldinst {\fs20\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 HYPERLINK http://www.monthlyreview.org/0306amin.htm }{\fs20\insrsid1708660\charrsid12127175 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b5400000068007400740070003a002f002f007700770077002e006d006f006e00740068006c0079007200650076006900650077002e006f00720067002f00300033003000360061006d0069006e002e00680074006d00
00000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\fs20\ul\cf2\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 http://www.monthlyreview.org/0306amin.htm}}}}}{\insrsid6751219 ). Ways of writing and producing school texts and educational materials outside copyright\rquote 
s strictures deserve more analysis, including the spreading of best practice. The questionable pricing and distribution practices of European and North American publishers also require much }{\insrsid12401674 more }{\insrsid6751219 
empirical study than we have been able to undertake here; as one publisher recently remarked, \'93intellectual property lies at the heart of the publishing industry.\'94 
\par 
\par On the question of cultural production, a third focus of the dossier, many questions require further discussion. Still, we do believe we have made a st
art here in looking at a few of the critical issues. In most parts of the South, the notion of individual \lquote stars\rquote 
, of individual appropriation, and of copyrighting creative work was still an alien concept until very recently; in many places, it still is. Is this changing and how quickly? If only a m}{\insrsid12401674 e}{\insrsid6751219 
re handful of musicians and artists can make a living in the North from a system that is centred on copyright, can the mass of artists from the South expect to be treated any differently? What are the pros and cons of Creative Commons\rquote 
 licences; is the analysis contained in the dossier too critical? And although we are said to live in an increasingly globalised world, rich countries of the global North certainly need more exposure to Southern understandings. As c
ommentator Martin Jacques wrote recently in a British newspaper: 
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid6751219 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid6751219\charrsid6751219 \'85
 globalisation has brought with it a new kind of western hubris\'85 (and the view) that western values and arrangements should be those of the world; that they are of universal application an
d merit. At the heart of globalisation is a new kind of intolerance in the west towards other cultures, traditions and values, less brutal than in the era of colonialism, but more comprehensive and totalitarian.}{
\cs18\i\super\insrsid6751219\charrsid6751219 \chftn {\footnote \pard\plain \s15\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid12127175 \f56\fs20\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\cs18\super\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175 \chftn }{\insrsid8483307\charrsid12127175  Martin Jacques, \lquote We are globalised, but have no real intimacy with the rest of the world\rquote , The Guardian (London), 17 April 2006. }}}{
\i\insrsid6751219\charrsid6751219  
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid6751219 
\par }{\insrsid6751219\charrsid6751219 Let the discussion and debate continue \'85 and move to }{\insrsid12401674 a }{\insrsid6751219\charrsid6751219 new level. Do not hesitate to contact the Copy/South Research Group by e-mail at }{\field\flddirty{\*\fldinst 
{\insrsid6751219\charrsid6751219  HYPERLINK "mailto:contact@copysouth.org" }{\insrsid1708660\charrsid6751219 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b02000000170000001600000063006f006e007400610063007400400063006f007000790073006f007500740068002e006f00720067000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b3a0000006d00610069006c0074006f003a0063006f006e007400610063007400400063006f00
7000790073006f007500740068002e006f007200670000000000000000}}}{\fldrslt {\cs19\insrsid6751219\charrsid6751219 contact@copysouth.org}}}{\insrsid6751219\charrsid6751219  with your thoughts, criticisms and ideas. }{\insrsid6751219 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7747762 \page }{\insrsid7603589\charrsid14050017 
\par }\pard\plain \s3\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 
\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel2\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid4081487 \b\f1\fs26\lang2057\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp1033 {\b0\fs28\insrsid7603589\charrsid4081487 {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734315}
6.2 Glossary of fifty copyright terms, phrases, and copyright-related organisations which are used in the Copy/South Dossier{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734315} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard\plain \s37\qj \li720\ri720\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin720\lin720\itap0\pararsid4081487 \f56\fs22\lang7177\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp7177\langfenp2057 {\i\insrsid7603589\charrsid4081487 Note to readers: Mos
t capitalised words in the definitions below are defined elsewhere in this Glossary. 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\insrsid7603589 
\par }\trowd \irow0\irowband0\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tbllkhdrrows\tbllklastrow\tbllkhdrcols\tbllklastcol \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \clcbpat21\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clcbpatraw21 \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clcbpat21\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clcbpatraw21 \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \clcbpat21\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clcbpatraw21 \cellx8420\pard\plain 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \cell }\pard 
\qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Term\cell Definition\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow0\irowband0
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tbllkhdrrows\tbllklastrow\tbllkhdrcols\tbllklastcol \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb
\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \clcbpat21\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clcbpatraw21 \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clcbpat21\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clcbpatraw21 \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrb\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrr\brdrs\brdrw10 \clcbpat21\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clcbpatraw21 \cellx8420\row 
}\trowd \irow1\irowband1\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tbllkhdrrows\tbllklastrow\tbllkhdrcols\tbllklastcol \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 
\clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\fs20\insrsid4081487\charrsid9314480 1)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid4081487\charrsid9314480 
Author\cell }{\fs20\insrsid4081487\charrsid9314480 The person (or persons) by whom the Work is created. It is a generic word in copyright law that includes the composer of a music
al work, the artist who draws or sculpts, and the writer of a computer software program. The author is sometimes the initial owner of copyright, but work created by an employee is, for example, usually owned by her/his employer. Copyright is capable of be
ing transferred. See Transfer of Copyright\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid4081487\charrsid9314480 
\trowd \irow1\irowband1\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tbllkhdrrows\tbllklastrow\tbllkhdrcols\tbllklastcol \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl
\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrs\brdrw10 \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\trowd \irow2\irowband2
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tbllkhdrrows\tbllklastrow\tbllkhdrcols\tbllklastcol \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl 
\clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl 
\clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\fs20\insrsid4081487\charrsid9314480 2)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid4081487\charrsid9314480 
Adaptation\cell }{\fs20\insrsid4081487\charrsid9314480 The modification of a Work to create another work, for example, adapting a novel to make a motion picture or the modification of a work to make it suitable for different conditions of exploitation or
 the translation of a Work from one language into another language. \cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\fs20\insrsid4081487\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow2\irowband2\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddft3\trpaddfb3\trpaddfr3\tbllkhdrrows\tbllklastrow\tbllkhdrcols\tbllklastcol 
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\trowd \irow3\irowband3
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 3)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Assignment of Copyright\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
One of two ways to conclude a Transfer of Copyright. This is the permanent allocation/ grant of some or all Economic Rights to a Work. Thus, if all rights are assigned, the person to whom the rights were so assigned becomes the owner of the copyright.
\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow3\irowband3
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 4)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Berne Convention\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
Properly titled the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works. It was adopted in 1886 as an agreement to protect the rights of all Authors who are nationals of countries that are party to the convention. (The word \'93authors\'94
 has been interpreted to include owners of copyrighted Works, such as publishers.) The current version of the convention is the Paris Act of 1971. The Berne Convention is also included as a part of the TRIPS Agreement; see Article 9. The conventio
n is administered by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO).\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow4\irowband4\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr
\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb
\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 5)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
Copyright\cell }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
The right granted by law providing the owner the exclusive rights over a Work to reproduce it, to prepare derivative works from it (e.g. Adaptations, translations), to 
distribute it, to perform it publicly (e.g. a play), and to display it publicly. Copyright applies to so-called \'93original\'94
 material such as books, articles, drawings, photographs, musical compositions, recordings, films, and computer programs. Copyright does not protect an abstract idea; it protects only the concrete expression of an idea.\cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow5\irowband5
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 6)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Copyright Notice\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
A notice which is placed on a work to inform others that the work is protected by copyright. This is usually prescribed as follows:}{\fs20\insrsid6751219  }{\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \'a9 <name of author
> <year of publication> It is not, however, a requirement in most countries.\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow6\irowband6\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr
\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb
\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 7)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
Creative Commons\cell }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Creative Commons is a non-profit organisation that offers a \'93
flexible range of protections and freedoms\'94 for authors and artists. It builds on the "all rights reserved" notion of traditional copyright to create a voluntary "some rights reserved" copyright.\cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow7\irowband7
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 8)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 DRM\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Acronym for Digital Rights Management. This is an umbrella phrase referring to \'93technology syst
ems facilitating the trusted and dynamic management of rights in any kind of digital information, throughout its life cycle, irrespective of how and where the digital information is distributed.\'94
 This includes any of several technical methods used to handl
e the description, layering, analysis, valuation, trading and monitoring of the rights held over a digital work in order to protect files from unauthorised use, as well as the management of the financial transaction processing. Digital rights management s
ystems are also referred to as electronic rights management systems (ERMS), rights management information systems (RMIs) and copyright management systems (CMS).\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow8\irowband8\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil 
\cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 9)\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Duration/Period of Copyright\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 The period or duration of copyright begins from the moment when
 the work has been created, or, expressed in a tangible form. The period of duration continues until a lengthy period of time that is determined by the death of the author and does not depend on whether the author owns the copyright. The Berne Convention 
e
stablishes a minimum of 50 years of copyright duration after the death of the author. But this is only a minimum and the period in different countries varies from 50 years to 100 years after the death of the author owing to various free trade agreements a
nd other }{\fs20\insrsid12401674 changes in national legislation}{\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
. Other types of copyright works, such as films, broadcasts and applied art works, may have different duration periods and may instead by based on the year that the work was first produced. \cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow9\irowband9
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 10)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Economic rights\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 The r
ight of the owner of Copyright to prevent others from making copies of her/his works, including the right to authorise distribution, rental or hiring of copies of the work, and even importation of the work. Also protected are the right to translate and ad
apt a work, the rights of public performance, broadcasting and communication of the work to the public. These rights can be transferred to other parties. \cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow10\irowband10\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil 
\cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 11)\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Exhaustion of Rights\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Also referred to as Principle of First Sale. This refers to a situation where copyright holders\rquote 
 rights over a certain work are exhausted upon the first sale or transfer of ownership of a particular copy of the work, which means that the owner of that copy is free to dispose of that copy without seeking the origina
l copyright owner's further permission.\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow11\irowband11
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 12)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Fair use/Fair Dealing or Fair Practice\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
This is a limitation to the Economic rights granted under copyright laws and permits certain acts to be carried out without the authorisation of the copyright owner. These 
generally include the use of certain limited portions of such works for: private and research study purposes; performance, copies or lending for educational purposes; criticism and news reporting; incidental inclusion; copies and lending by librarians; ac
t
s for the purposes of royal commissions, statutory enquiries, judicial proceedings and parliamentary purposes; recording of broadcasts for the purposes of listening to or viewing at a more convenient time (this is known as time shifting); producing a back
 up copy for personal use of a computer program or; playing a sound recording for a non-profit making organisation, club, or society. Note that the scope of these exclusions varies in every jurisdiction.\cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow12\irowband12
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 13)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1947 (GATT 1947)\cell 
}\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
This agreement was formed as part of the 1947 Havana Charter that would have created the International Trade Organization (ITO) as a sister institution to the World Bank and the IMF. However the failure of the United States to ratify the 1947 Havan
a Charter caused the ITO to be still-born. Pending the creation of a new international institution that would administer it, GATT 1947 was, instead, adopted and applied by countries on }{\fs20\insrsid12401674 a }{\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
provisional basis for fifty years from 1947 to 1994 through so-called \'93Protocols of Provisional Accession.\'94
 The text of GATT 1947 as it stood on 15 April 1994 was absorbed in toto directly into the text of the GATT 1994, such that any references to specific provisions in GATT 1994 would indicate provisions found in the text of GATT 1947.\cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow13\irowband13
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 14)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994 (GATT 1994)\cell 
}\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
This is the Uruguay Round agreement annexed to the WTO Agreement that serves as the successor to GATT 1947. GATT 1994 covers: (i) the text of GATT 1947; 
(ii) various legal instruments created by GATT 1947 member countries that entered into force under the GATT 1947 before the entry into force on 1 January 1995 of the WTO Agreement; (iii) various \'93understandings\'94
 agreed upon by countries during the Uruguay Round with respect to the interpretation of various provisions in the GATT 1947; and (iv) the Marrakesh Protocol to GATT 1994.\cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow14\irowband14
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 15)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Infringement (of Copyright)\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 The unauthorised use of works protected under copyright and a use that is not permitted by Fair 
Dealing/Fair Use provisions; it does not matter whether such unauthorised use was deliberate or non deliberate. This constitutes a criminal offence in an increasing number of jurisdictions with varying penalties such as imprisonment, fines, and confiscati
on of the offending material. \cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow15\irowband15
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 16)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs)\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
This is a collective term referring to all those intellectual property rights that can be granted by the State for the exclusive exploitation of intellectual creations. One approach div
ides IPRs into two categories: those rights relating to industrial property (patents, industrial designs and models, marks, and geographical appellations), and those relating to literary and artistic property (copyright). \cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow16\irowband16
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 17)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 IFRRO\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Properly known as The 
International Federation of Reproduction Rights Organisations, this consortium links together all RROs as well as national and international associations of rightsholders. IFRRO works to encourage the formation of RROs worldwide, to facilitate formal and 
informal agreements between its members, and to increase public and institutional support for copyright. \cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow17\irowband17\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil 
\cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 18)\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Literary work\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
Work consisting of text such as novels, poems, song lyrics without music, catalogues reports, tables as well as translations of such works. It also includes computer programs. \cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow18\irowband18
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 19)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Licensing of copyright\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 One of two ways to conclude a Transfer of Copyright
. Refers to the authorisation to exercise some or all Economic Rights e.g. the copying of a work, for a specific period of time and for a specific purpose; the owner still retains ownership of the rights. A licence is usually obtained by paying a fee to t
he rightsholder. \cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow19\irowband19
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 20)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Marrakech Agreement/ WTO Agreement\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
This is the main framework treaty creating the World Trade Organisation and to which is annexed the various other Uruguay Round agreements. It entered into force on 1 January 1995. Currently, 146 cou
ntries have ratified or acceded to the Marrakech Agreement.\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
\trowd \irow20\irowband20\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl 
\clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 21)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Moral Rights\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Concerned with the protection of the reputation of the
 Author and are independent of Economic rights. In particular, they refer to the Right of Attribution (or Paternity), the Right of Integrity, and the right of association. These rights are often, though not always, extinguished on the death of the author.
\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow21\irowband21
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 22)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Most Favoured Nation (MFN)\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 This is one of two cornerstone principles underlying the GATT 1994, and the TRIPS Agreeme}{\fs20\insrsid12401674 
nt which requires that members }{\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 o}{\fs20\insrsid12401674 f}{\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480  those treaties }{\fs20\insrsid12401674 do }{\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
not give any one member preferred treatment in terms of market access for goods and
 services or even treatment of Intellectual Property emerging from the different member states. This is reflected in Article I of GATT 1994 and Article 4 of the TRIPS Agreement.\cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow22\irowband22
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 23)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Musical work\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Work that consists of music plus lyrics or music only.\cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow23\irowband23
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 24) \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 National Treatment (NT)\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Th}{\fs20\insrsid12401674 is is one of two corner}{\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
stone principles underlying the GATT that requires a member state to treat domestic and imported goods, services, service suppliers, investments, and IPRs equally or in the same way. This is reflected in Ar
ticle III of GATT 1994, and in Article 3 of the TRIPS Agreement.\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
\trowd \irow24\irowband24\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl 
\clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 25) \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Neighbouring Rights\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 See Performers and producers rights.\cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow25\irowband25
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 26) \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Open Source Software\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 The Open Source Initiative has defined open source software as software whose licence generally allow
s for free redistribution of the program and its source code. It also permits the creation and distribution of derivative works and modifications. In so doing, the licence must not discriminate against any persons, fields, technology, products or other so
ftware.\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow26\irowband26
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 28)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Performers and Producers Rights\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
A term used to indicate rights of performers and sound recording producers to be remunerated when their performances and sound recordings are performed publicly or broadcast. Also referred to as "neighbouring rights". \cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow27\irowband27
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 29)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Piracy\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
The term coined to describe the deliberate Infringement of copyright on a private or commercial scale, i.e. unauthorised copying. \cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow28\irowband28\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil 
\cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 30) \cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Principle of First Sale\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 See Exhaustion of Rights\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow29\irowband29\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil 
\cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 31) \cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Public domain\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 This comprises the body of know
ledge and innovation in relation to which no person can establish or maintain proprietary interests. It is considered to be part of the common cultural and intellectual heritage of mankind. Proprietary works can revert to the public domain where the copyr
i
ght (or patent) has been waived, or the copyright (or patent) period has lapsed and can be used without authorisation or permission of the rightsholder. In some jurisdictions such as Argentina, copyrighted works do not revert to the public domain on expir
y of the protection period, but revert to the state that granted these rights.\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow30\irowband30\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr
\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb
\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 32) \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
Reprographic Rights Organizations (RROs)\cell }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
RROs are "collecting societies" which, acting as agents of rightsholders, licence the reproduction of copyright-protected material.
 RROs derive their authority from contracts with national copyright holders and/or from legislation. RROs licences typically grant authorisations to copy a portion of a publication, in limited numbers of copies, for the internal use of institutional users
 such as university libraries. In order to collect fees and convey authorisations internationally, RROs enter into bilateral agreements with each other; such agreements are based upon the principle of National Treatment.\cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow31\irowband31
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 33) \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Requirements for Copyright\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 In most jurisdictions, to qualify for copyright protection a work must be \'93original\'94
 (meaning originating from an identifiable author or authors), exhibit a degree of labour, skill or judgment, and be fixated in a tangible form. \cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow32\irowband32\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil 
\cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 36) \cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Right of Attribution (Paternity)\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 The Moral Right of the author of a Work to be credited as the author of that work. \cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow33\irowband33
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 35) \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Right of Integrity\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
The Moral Right to object to any distortion, mutilation or other modification of, or other derogatory action in relation to the work which would be prejudicial to the author's honour or reputation.\cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow34\irowband34
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 36) \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 RIAA\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Properly referred to as the Recording Ind
ustry Association of America, the RIAA is the trade group that represents the U.S. recording industry. Its members constitute among the largest record companies in the world who create, manufacture and/or distribute approximately 90% of all legitimate sou
nd recordings produced and sold in the United States. \cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
\trowd \irow35\irowband35\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl 
\clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 37) \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Section 301 action\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
Section 301 of the U.S. Omnibus Trade Act of 1988 is the principal U.S. statute for addressing alleged foreign unfair practices affecting U.S. exports of goods or services. This
 particular section of the Act gives the U.S. Trade Representative (USTR) discretion to unilaterally enforce sanctions in response to what the U.S. government considers are unreasonable, unjustifiable, or discriminatory foreign government practices that b
urden or restrict U.S. commerce.\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow36\irowband36
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 38) \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Special and differential treatment (S&D)\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 This refers to the principle that would provide developing countries with special privileges vis-\'e0
-vis compliance with WTO or TRIPS obligations in view of their different or lower state of economic development. This usually takes the form of exemptions from some WTO rules or else in the form of special trade rights (such as longer transition periods).
\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow37\irowband37
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 39) \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Technical Protection Measures (TPM)\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Refers to technological methods inten
ded to promote the authorized use of digital works. This is accomplished by controlling access to, copying, distribution, performance, or display of such works. Examples of TPM's are passwords and cryptography technologies.\cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow38\irowband38
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 40) \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Transfer of Copyright\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 See Licensing of Copyright and Assignment of Copyright above.\cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow39\irowband39
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 41) \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Translation\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
This generally means the expression of a Work in a language other than that of the original version. Only the copyright owner can authorise a translation to be made and published. \cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow40\irowband40
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 42)}{\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480  \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 TRIPS Agreement\cell 
}\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
Properly referred to as The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, the TRIPS Agreement is a Uruguay Round agreement annexed to the WTO Agreement. It came into force in 1996 and is the most comprehensi
ve multilateral agreement on intellectual property. It sets compulsory minimum standards for intellectual property protection which countries that join the World Trade Organisation must conform to. Under the terms of this agreement, all WTO member-countri
es must re-write their national laws to conform to international standards for the protection of patents, trade marks, copyrights, industrial designs, and trade secrets}{\fs20\insrsid12401674  in order to reflect the minimum}{
\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480  standards contained in the TRIPS Agreement. The minimum 
standards in TRIPS are set primarily with reference to the Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property (Paris Convention) and the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works (Berne Convention); TRIPS also makes the pr
inciples of National Treatment and Most Favoured Nation applicable to the protection, application, and use of IPRs. \cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow41\irowband41\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil 
\cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 43) \cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 TRIPS Plus (+) Agenda\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Thi
s refers to the imposition of obligations by bilateral agreements (often in the form of Free Trade Agreements) that impose far higher requirements for the protection of IPRs than those encapsulated in the TRIPS Agreements. Such Free Trade Agreements, for 
example, have required some countries to extend the duration of copyright to 100 years after the death of the author compared to a world average of 50 years after the death of the author.\cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow42\irowband42
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 44) \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 UNCTAD\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Properly known as the United Nations Conference on Trade
 and Development. It was established in 1964, to promote the development-friendly integration of developing countries into the world economy.\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow43\irowband43\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil 
\cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 45) \cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Universal Copyright Convention (UCC)\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 The UCC was created in 1952 through the United Nations Educational Scie
ntific Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) to provide an international multilateral copyright treaty that would serve as an alternative to the Berne Convention and }{\fs20\insrsid12401674 t}{\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
hereby cater to those countries not willing to sign up to the Berne Convention, such as the Unit
ed States. With the US joining the Berne Convention in 1989 and with the creation of the TRIPS Agreement, which incorporates Berne, the UCC today has significantly diminished importance. \cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow44\irowband44
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 46) \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Uruguay Round (UR) \cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 This refers to the negotiations that took 
place under the auspices of GATT 1947. It was launched at Punta del Este, Uruguay, in 1986 and concluded at Marrakesh, Morocco, in April 1994. It resulted in the negotiation and conclusion of the Uruguay Round agreements such as the TRIPS Agreement and th
e creation of the World Trade Organisation.\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
\trowd \irow45\irowband45\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl 
\clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 47) \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Work(s)\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
All literary, dramatic, musical or artistic material protected by copyright laws, including but not limited to every production in the literary, scientific and artistic domain, whatever may be the mo
de or form of its expression, such as books, pamphlets and other writings; lectures, addresses, sermons and similar materials; dramatic or dramatic-musical materials; choreographic materials/performances and entertainments; musical compositions with or wi
t
hout words; films and analogous cinematographic materials; drawings, paintings, architecture, sculpture, engraving and lithography; photographs; works of applied art; illustrations, maps, plans, sketches and three-dimensional works relative to geography, 
topography, architecture or science. Also includes translations, adaptations, collections, and arrangements of music and other alterations of literary or artistic materials which are protected without prejudice to the copyright in the original material.
\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow46\irowband46
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 48) \cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 
With headquarters in Geneva Switzerland, WIPO is one of the 16 specialized agencies of the United Nations system of organizations. It administers 23 international treaties including the Berne Convention, t
he WIPO Copyright Treaty (WCT), and the Rome Convention for the Protection of Performers, Producers of Phonograms and Broadcasting Organizations among others, dealing with different aspects of intellectual property protection. WIPO, which currently includ
es 183 nations as member states, was created in 1967 as \'93}{\fs20\cf1\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 an international organization dedicated to promoting the use and protection of works of the human spirit.\'94}{\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480  
\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow47\irowband47
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {
\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 49)\cell }\pard \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 World Intellectual Property Organization Copyright Treaty (WCT)
\cell }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 The WCT is an international treaty that was negotiated in 1996 primarily to protect rightsholders\rquote 
 copyrights on the Internet. It introduced anti-circumvention provisions as well as requiring signatory countries to prohibit the alteration or deletion of electronic rights managem
ent information, which is information that identifies a work, its author, performer or owner, and the terms and conditions for its use.\cell }\pard\plain \ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 
\f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow48\irowband48\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt
\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil 
\cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard\plain 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 50)\cell }\pard 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\b\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 World Trade Organization (WTO)\cell }\pard 
\qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\pararsid9314480\yts126 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 Located in Geneva Switzerland, this is the international intergovernmental organizat
ion established as a result of the Marrakech Agreement. It came into being on 1 January 1995, and currently has 149 countries as members. It is tasked with overseeing the implementation of the various Uruguay Round agreements, including the TRIPS Agreemen
t; it is a forum for trade negotiations; it handles trade disputes among member countries; it also monitors national trade policies and provides technical assistance and training primarily for developing countries. \cell }\pard\plain 
\ql \li0\ri0\widctlpar\intbl\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\fs20\insrsid9314480\charrsid9314480 \trowd \irow49\irowband49\lastrow 
\ts126\trgaph108\trleft-108\trftsWidth1\trftsWidthB3\trftsWidthA3\trautofit1\trpaddl108\trpaddr108\trpaddfl3\trpaddfr3 \clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth510\clshdrawnil \cellx402
\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl \cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth2358\clshdrawnil \cellx2760\clvertalt\clbrdrt\brdrtbl \clbrdrl\brdrtbl \clbrdrb\brdrtbl \clbrdrr\brdrtbl 
\cltxlrtb\clftsWidth3\clwWidth5660\clshdrawnil \cellx8420\row }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\b\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard \qc \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid9314480 {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid9314480 
For a fuller explanation of the above terms and other copyright-related terms and organisations, we recommend that you check with Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia, at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid9314480 
HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page }{\b\insrsid1708660\charrsid9314480 {\*\datafield 
00d0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b0200000003000000e0c9ea79f9bace118c8200aa004ba90b4e00000068007400740070003a002f002f0065006e002e00770069006b006900700065006400690061002e006f00720067002f00770069006b0069002f004d00610069006e005f005000610067006500000000000000
00}}}{\fldrslt {\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid9314480 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page}}}{\b\insrsid7603589\charrsid9314480 
\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw10\brsp80 \faauto\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid7603589 {\f2\fs20\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard\plain \s2\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid3282187 \b\i\f1\fs28\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid3282187 
\par \page 
\par }\pard \s2\ql \li0\ri0\sb240\sa60\keepn\widctlpar\brdrt\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrl\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \brdrb\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp20 \brdrr\brdrs\brdrw30\brsp80 \aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\outlinelevel1\adjustright\rin0\lin0\rtlgutter\itap0\pararsid3948818 {
\b0\i0\fs32\insrsid7603589\charrsid3948818 \page {\*\bkmkstart _Toc135734316}Index of the C/S Dossier{\*\bkmkend _Toc135734316} 
\par }\pard\plain \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid7603589 \f56\fs22\lang2057\langfe2057\cgrid\langnp2057\langfenp2057 {\insrsid7603589 
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\insrsid3948818 \sect }\sectd 
\psz9\sbknone\linex0\cols2\linebetcol\endnhere\titlepg\sectlinegrid326\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid3948818\sftnbj \pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {
\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 A2K Initiative, See: Access to Knowledge A2K treaty group
\par academic and scientific journals, 18, 26, 73, 97, 104, 105, 108, 112, 172
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 fees, 118, 173, 173n
\par and the Internet, 19, 106, 117\endash 118
\par open access, 171\endash 174
\par publishing, commercialisation of, 105
\par  (}{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See also}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  databases, e-journal subscriptions)
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 academic information in Africa, current model for delivering, 135n

\par access to digital content, restricted by vendor monitoring and protection of content, 12, 104
\par Access to Knowledge A2K treaty group, 157, 161\endash 164
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  (}{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See also}{
\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  Treaty on Access to Knowledge (Proposed))
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 access to knowledge and technical information
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 barriers to the use of copyrighted material, 89\endash 145, 153, 162

\par broadened by CC licensing, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  Creative Commons
\par by deaf persons, 113, 132
\par delivery of content limited by market forces, 11\endash 27, 40
\par by disabled persons, 113, 117
\par in distance learning, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  distance learning ...
\par free software use, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  free and open source ...
\par in libraries, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  libraries
\par by visually impaired, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  visually impaired
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Action Aid Pakistan (NGO), 154
\par Action Group on Erosion, Technology and Concentration, 154
\par activists (information), }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  information activists
\par adaptation, defined, 181
\par Addis Ababa University, 108
\par Africa
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
performing arts (the issue of allocating creative roles, royalty-accruing components), 59
\par 'piracy' in (estimate for losses by Northern IP rights-holders), 34
\par traditional societies and information sharing, 84
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 African Renaissance (Organisation), 68
\par African Virtual University (Kenya), 96, 99
\par AfriTAN (TRIPS Action Network section), 154
\par Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  TRIPS Agreement
\par Algeria, 150
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Kybyle people, and authorship of music, 26
\par ra\'ef music as shared traditional knowledge (diffuse authorship), 58\endash 59
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\lang1034\langfe1033\langnp1034\insrsid3948818\charrsid7240289 Alternativa Bolivariana para Am\'e9
rica Latina y El Caribe, ALBA, 156
\par }{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Alternative Law Center (Bangalore, India), 175
\par alternative models for information sharing (fair terms for access and use), 107, 119, 147, 157, 161\endash 164, 162, 170\endash 174, 179
\par alternatives to the global copyright system and intellectual property regime, 147\endash 175
\par American Association of Publishers, 73
\par Angola, 150
\par anti-circumvention laws, technical measures restricting use of digital content, 12, 104, 117
\par Arab book and music industries, omitting payments of royalties, 63
\par Arab countries: individual intellectual property, an alien concept in traditional cultures, 61\endash 63
\par Argentina
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 copyright/patent rights revert to state, not to public domain, 184

\par free software movement, 10
\par Mi PC program, 165
\par opposition to neo-liberal trade, 156
\par 'pirated' software in, 125, 126
\par reprographic rights, 43
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 artistic expression and monopoly ownership, }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  creativity and invention discouraged ...
\par }{\f56\fs20\lang1034\langfe1033\langnp1034\insrsid3948818\charrsid7240289 Asociaci\'f3n Uruguaya para la Tutela Organizada de los Derechos Reprogr\'e1ficos, AUTOR, 43
\par }{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 assignment of copyright, defined, 181
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  (}{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See also}{
\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  licensing of copyright)
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Association for the Development of Education in Africa, 96
\par assumptions about the copyright paradigm and cultural production, western/northern, 11, 16, 20, 30, 34, 67\endash 70, 162\endash 163, 169, 179
\par assumptions about the dominant Intellectual Property Rights discourse, western/northern, 11, 16
\par assumptions about US-led cultural dominance and its controlled flow of information, 141\endash 145
\par Australia, 94, 154
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 aboriginal culture (heritage authorship), 58, 154
\par free trade agreement on IP rights, 38, 39
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 author
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 and right of attribution, 185
\par and right of integrity of work and reputation, 185
\par defined, 181
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 authors' rights, protection of, }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  protection of authors' rights
\par authorship, community-structured, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 vs.}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  undifferentiated western IP system, 24, 68
\par authorship traditions in the global South (origination of creativity in a common heritage), 56\endash 64, 154
\par 
\par Bahrain
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 free trade agreement on IP rights, 38
\par role of WIPO in developing national IP programs in, 81\endash 83
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Bangladesh, 122
\par Bantu language group, 135
\par barriers to the use of copyrighted materials in the global South, 3, 9, 19, 70, 89\endash 145, 153, 162, 173\endash 174
\par behavioural economics research on incentives to create, 16
\par Berne Convention
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 and intellectual property rights, 186
\par 1971 Appendix pertaining to developing countries, 134, 139\endash 140, 152
\par Article 8 (right of translation), 133
\par defined, 181
\par education exemption, lack of, 151
\par as European inspired, 7, 148\endash 149
\par and extension of copyright terms, 40, 92
\par fair use/fair dealing provisions not mandated by, 137
\par history of, 139, 148\endash 150, 152n
\par as inflexible treaty with 'one-size-fits-all' orientation, 149
\par national treatment concept in, 48
\par need for its repeal, 48n
\par non-European countries joining, post-1886, 150
\par non-European countries represented at drafting (1886), 148\endash 149
\par reservations, 149
\par three-step test for copyright exceptions, 49n, 131, 136, 140\endash 141, 163
\par three-step test, recent extensions and applications, 140n
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 BioMed Central (open access publisher), 173
\par Bolivarian Alternative for Latin America and the Caribbean, ALBA, 156
\par book market and booksellers, 7, 15, 27n, 63, 100\endash 101
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 libraries and booksellers, an uneasy symbiosis, 101
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
books accessible in alternate formats for reading impaired, proportion of, 129
\par Botswana, 109
\par Brazil, 123, 124, 125
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 alternatives programs to copyright law in, 157, 170\endash 171

\par Canto Livre parallel music industry in, 170\endash 171
\par cell phone technology overtaking Internet use, 10
\par 'copy shop' raids, 73
\par indigenous peoples of, 155
\par opposition to neo-liberal trade, 156
\par resistance to TRIPS, 8
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
British and German music industry data in context of digital technology, 78n
\par British authors in 19th century, 15
\par British Copyright Council, 152
\par British universities and colleges blanket licensing provision for course packs, 43n
\par }{\f56\fs20\lang1036\langfe1033\langnp1036\insrsid3948818\charrsid7240289 Bureaux internationaux r\'e9unis pour la protection de la propri\'e9t\'e9 intellectuelle, 80
\par }{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 business model to bargain for better fees, licenses, terms, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  negotiating power
\par Business Software Alliance (trade group), 165
\par Business Software Association (Philippines), 126
\par }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Business week}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  (magazine), 123
\par 
\par Cameroon, 108
\par Canada, 35, 81, 128
\par capital flow
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 attributable to copyright and IP rights, 46\endash 47, 83
\par calculating copyright-related capital movements, 31\endash 35
\par capital flow in IP industries from periphery to the centre, 29\endash 51
\par and the effects of national treatment on global South, 50
\par outflow from global South, net, 48\endash 51
\par  (}{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See also}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  cultural goods & world trade; }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 and}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  economics of global copyright)

\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Center for Public Integrity (Washington, DC), 27
\par Central American Free Trade Agreement (CAFTA), 38, 40
\par }{\f56\fs20\lang2070\langfe1033\langnp2070\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Centre for Environmental Concerns (India), NGO, 154
\par }{\f56\fs20\lang1034\langfe1033\langnp1034\insrsid3948818\charrsid7240289 Centro Colombiano de Derechos Reprogr\'e1ficos, CEDER, 43
\par Centro de Administraci\'f3n de Derechos Reprogr\'e1ficos (Argentina), CADRA, 43
\par Centro Mexicano de Protecci\'f3n y Fomento de los Derechos de Autor, CeMPro, 43
\par }{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Chile, 92, 94
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 copyright term in, 91
\par free trade agreement on IP rights, 38
\par Mi primera PC program, 165
\par reprographic rights, 43
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 China
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 barriers to foreign-produced films, 153
\par CDs, illegal entry of remaindered, 74
\par literary tradition of copying, disregard for originality or the concept of authorship, 59\endash 60
\par pirate versions of CDs and videos, 30
\par pirate versions of software, 125
\par and visually impaired, 127
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 circumvention of technological protection, 12, 18
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 DeCSS DVD descrambler, 40
\par and Digital Millennium Copyright Act (US), 39
\par encrypted software, 41
\par  (}{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See also:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  technological protection measures)
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 closed standards (proprietary standards), 84, 121, 125
\par collecting societies (agents of rights holders), }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  reprographic rights organisations
\par Colombia
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 copyright clearance costs restrict academic research in, 115
\par Random House Colombia (publisher) restricts lending rights, 107
\par reprographic rights, 43
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 comic art used as satire to parody dominant copyright ideology, 175

\par commodification
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 copyright value system and, 45, 53\endash 55
\par of culture and knowledge, 60, 65, 67, 69\endash 71, 158
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Commons, Creative, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:
}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  Creative Commons
\par }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Confessions of an economic hit man}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  (2004)}{\f56\fs20\insrsid15298483 , 178}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
\par Congo, 151
\par Consumer Project on Technology, CPTech, 161
\par Consumers International, 161
\par contracts and licenses to protect vendor databases, 12, 104
\par CONTU report (US), 120
\par copy-protected digital media and fair use issues, 38\endash 39
\par copyduty proposed on IP to sustain the public domain, 41
\par copying digital works, technical protection from, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  technological protection measures
\par copying in libraries, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  photocopying, library\endash related
\par copying, unauthorised
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 criminalisation of copying in the global South, 71\endash 76
\par equated with theft, 17\endash 18, 19n, 72
\par in French-speaking West Africa, 108
\par online file sharing as, 30, 72
\par satire parodying dominant ideology regarding, 175
\par in South African education sector (estimates of 'piracy'), 34
\par of textbooks, 34, 44, 73, 91, 98, 102, 105, 132
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 copyleft movement, 75n, 120\endash 121, 165
\par copyright
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 advantages and benefits of (alleged), }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  copyright incentives ...
\par aggressive assertion of, United States, 30
\par applicable to the specific expression of an idea, not to the idea itself, 7
\par assignment of, 7
\par assignment of copyright, definition of, 181
\par and authorship traditions in the global South (based on common heritage), 56\endash 64
\par capital flow attributed to, 46\endash 47
\par and commodification rationale (trade-related intangible property), 54\endash 55, 61
\par and consumerism rationale (market impetus to material culture), 56
\par and creativity, 13\endash 27, 16, 56\endash 64
\par definition of, 181
\par and digital material, 7\endash 8, 13
\par dominant copyright and IP discourse, assumptions, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  assumptions about ...
\par duration, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  duration of copyright
\par and electronic rights management (WIPO Copyright Treaty), 187
\par equal treatment and protection of foreigners, nationals, 48
\par expansion of copyright laws and IP rights, 7, 8, 33, 83, 89
\par and fair use, See: fair use/fair dealing (fair practice latitude)
\par fees, royalty collection, See: reprographic rights organisations
\par as a form of protectionism, 15
\par and free trade agreements, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  free trade agreements
\par global copyright, economics of, 29\endash 51
\par history of, 7\endash 8, 94, 139, 148\endash 153
\par holders of copyright, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  rights holders
\par ideology of, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  assumptions about ...; }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 and:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  ideology of global copyright

\par indicators of copyright-related capital flows, 31\endash 32
\par and indigenous peoples, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  traditional knowledge
\par and individualism rationale (personality theory), 53\endash 54
\par industries in US (value of exports of cultural goods), 32
\par infringement, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  infringement of copyright
\par justification for, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  ideology of global copyright
\par licensing, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  license ...; }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 and:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  licensing ...; }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 and:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  reprographic rights
\par and national treatment concept, 48\endash 50
\par northern-owned aspect (the economy of copyright in the global North), 9
\par and the 'one-size-fits-all' approach, template, 10, 149
\par original intent incongruent with digital technologies, 13
\par originality requirement, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  originality ...
\par personality theory and, 54
\par piracy, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  'piracy' of works
\par and profit motive, 15, 55
\par requirements for, defined, 185
\par and reward rationale (remuneration), 55\endash 56, 77\endash 79
\par rhetoric of, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  language of property rights and status quo
\par as superfluous, 16
\par and translation(s), }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  translation ...
\par and values of commodification, consumerism, individualism, reward, 53\endash 56
\par as western idea imposed on global South, 10, 52
\par western/northern assumptions about the model, 52\endash 56 (}{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See also}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  assumptions about ...)
\par work(s) defined with respect to, 186
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Copyright Act, 1710 (Gt. Brit.), }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  Statute of Anne
\par Copyright Act (Kenya), 99
\par Copyright Act (South Africa, 1978), 111
\par Copyright Act (UK, 2002), Visually Impaired Persons, 130
\par Copyright Act (US, 1998), Digital Millennium, 18, 19, 38, 39
\par Copyright Act (US, 1998), Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act, 40, 92, 141n
\par copyright alternatives in global South, 159\endash 160
\par Copyright Clearance Center (US), 45
\par copyright clearance costs, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  transaction costs
\par copyright clearance, obtaining permission to copy, 43n, 98, 111\endash 113
\par copyright compliance in libraries, costs involved in, 19, 85, 90, 100, 104\endash 106, 118
\par copyright cops, 45, 102\endash 103, 106, 113
\par Copyright, Designs and Patents Act (Great Britain), 128
\par copyright discourse, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  language of property rights and status quo
\par copyright earnings received, survey of UK Performing Rights Society, 77\endash 78
\par copyright extension. }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See under:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  duration of copyright
\par copyright incentives (alleged) for the creator, 14, 16, 45, 52\endash 53, 55, 63, 82, 94, 147, 160, 177
\par copyright incentives (alleged) for the culture industries, 15\endash 16, 23, 31, 55\endash 56
\par copyright incentives }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 vs.}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  the incentive for providing for the public good, 160
\par copyright industries (creative economy), 12n, 13, 31\endash 33, 35, 37, 41, 47, 85, 92
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 in Brazil, 170
\par world trade in cultural goods, 31\endash 35
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 copyright infringement, }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  infringement of copyright
\par Copyright Licensing Agency (UK), 43n
\par Copyright Licensing and Administration Society of Singapore, CLASS, 43
\par copyright lobby, 17, 36, 40
\par copyright notice, defined, 181
\par copyright paradigm, ideology of, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  assumptions about ...; }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 and:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
 ideology of global ...
\par copyright policy
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 changes on individual level }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 vs.}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  societal level, 169
\par international and national role of WIPO on, 81\endash 87
\par policy-setting centres: 'Quad' centres of Canada/European Community/Japan/US, 81
\par of United States, 34\endash 41
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
copyright protection for music CDs in Brazil as form of creative commons licensing, 170\endash 171
\par copyright protection for software code, 119\endash 121
\par copyright protection needed for non-economic intentions (benefits other than profit-based), 15
\par copyright protection schemes of Creative Commons licensing, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  Creative Commons
\par copyright protest (direct action)
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Bangalore, India, 175
\par satire and art (parodying dominant ideology), 175
\par South Africa, 174
\par Taipei, Taiwan, 93
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 copyright reform
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 A2K }{\f56\fs20\insrsid15298483\charrsid3948818 Initiative}{
\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  on WIPO Copyright Treaty reform, 157, 161\endash 164
\par detoured by focus on Creative Commons licensing approach, 168\endash 170
\par to reduce the threat to free speech, 17\endash 18
\par to reduce the threat to scientific method and scholarly communication, 18\endash 19
\par to reduce the threat to the creative process, 19
\par Treaty on Access to Knowledge (Proposed), 161\endash 162
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 copyright resistance from the global South, 147\endash 175. }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See also}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  resistance to ...
\par copyright restrictions, 90\endash 141
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 to artistic expression and diversity, 21, 62, 64
\par Berne Convention restrictions, test, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  Berne Convention
\par on consumers' access to entertainment, 73
\par of digital content providers on libraries, 19
\par of Digital Millennium Copyright Act (US), 18\endash 19, 38\endash 39
\par extended, 7\endash 8, 40, 49, 186
\par 'fair use' exemptions, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  fair use/fair dealing (exemptions)
\par impacting rural learning centres of South Africa, 109\endash 111
\par limitations and exceptions, special and differential treatment, 49, 130n, 163
\par limitations and exceptions strictly controlled by laws, 136, 140
\par Most Favoured Nation restriction on IPR preferential treatment, 184
\par property-like, 7, 136
\par on public discourse and international exchange of ideas and opinions, 21\endash 22
\par in TRIPS Agreement, 36
\par United Kingdom legislation on, 128
\par to unrestricted free flow of information, 41, 90, 142, 171
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 copyright rhetoric, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  language of property rights and status quo
\par Copyright Society of Malawi, COSOMA, 43
\par copyright, term of, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  duration of copyright
\par Copyright Treaty (WIPO), }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  WIPO Treaty (electronic rights management)
\par Copyright4Innovation (group), 121
\par copyrighted materials, barriers to use of, 89\endash 145, 119\endash 121
\par Copy/South Research Group
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 contacting, e-mail address, 180
\par origins of dossier, workshop, 4
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Costa Rica, 92
\par costs, transaction (compliance, copyright clearance, delivery), }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  transaction costs
\par C\'f4te d'Ivoire, 92
\par course packs, ad hoc study materials, improvised textbooks, 43, 43n, 98, 111\endash 113, 138
\par Creative Commons
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 the commons as cultural content, 
protecting it from commodification, 69
\par defined, 167, 181
\par language of property rights, utilized to protect the commons, 69
\par licensing scheme/paradigm, 119, 158n, 162, 167\endash 171, 179
\par pros and cons of CC licenses in global South, 168\endash 170
\par virtual commons, 169n
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 creative economy, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}
{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  copyright industries
\par creative work }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 vs.}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  formulaic work (affected by privatisation of IP channels of distribution), 19\endash 27
\par creativity, copyright not a precondition of, 63
\par creativity and invention discouraged by privatisation and monopolisation, 13\endash 27, 19\endash 20
\par creativity as community authorship (origins in a common heritage, in traditional knowledge), 56\endash 64
\par creator, definition of, 14n
\par creators, categories of, 14
\par Cuba, 118, 150, 151, 156
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 musicians' IP rights in, 25
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 cultural conglomerates and global marketing, 79, 153
\par cultural goods and world trade, 31\endash 35
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 capital flow attributed to IP rights, 46\endash 47
\par case study of South Africa (data on capital flow), 46\endash 47
\par and commodification rationale for copyright, 54\endash 55
\par commodities homogenised by national treatment concept, 49\endash 50
\par indicators on culture relative to development, lack of data, 31
\par percentage of imports by developing countries, 32
\par 'piracy', unsubstantiated figures for losses due to, 33
\par proportion of world trade, 32
\par  (}{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See also}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  capital flow; economics...; national treatment...)
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 cultural heritage, common, }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  traditional knowledge
\par }{\f56\fs20\lang2070\langfe1033\langnp2070\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 cultural imperialism, 8, 53n, 68n, 74, 90, 142\endash 145, 143, 150n, 152\endash 153, 153n, 156n
\par }{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 cultural theft, 65, 69, 69n, 154, 155, 158\endash 159
\par culture of sharing }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 vs.}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  culture of monopolisation, 8, 147
\par 
\par DALRO (South Africa), }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  Dramatic, Artistic and Literary Rights Organisation
\par databases, e-journal subscriptions
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 archival permanency lacking in, 106\endash 107, 173\endash 174

\par and copyright management systems, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  digital rights ...
\par differential subscription rates for, 19
\par downloading and reproducing from, 104, 113, 118
\par institutional repositories (open, Web-based archives), 173\endash 174
\par license alteration prohibited, 187
\par open access journals and open archiving initiatives, 171\endash 174
\par rapid privatisation of educational research into databases, 97
\par  (}{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See also}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  academic and scientific journals)
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Declaration of Shamans on Intellectual Property (2001), 159
\par DeCSS DVD descrambler, 40
\par Democratic Republic of the Congo, 122
\par developing countries, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  global South
\par Development Gateway, 118\endash 119
\par digital archives or repositories (article/paper-level or journal-level), 172\endash 174
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 dissertation/thesis, 173
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\lang1053\langfe1033\langnp1053\insrsid3948818\charrsid7240289 
Digital Book Mobile (Gulu, Uganda), 107\endash 108
\par }{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Digital Millennium Copyright Act (US), 18\endash 19, 38\endash 39
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 fair use copying, prevention of, 38
\par as more restrictive than WIPO Copyright Treaty, 38
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 digital rights management systems, 45, 113, 187
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 DRM defined, 182
\par DRMs as flawed Internet copyright tollgates, 116\endash 117
\par as inappropriate for developing countries, 117
\par 'page fee' (DRM) }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 vs.}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  open access 'article processing fee', 173n
\par and protection technology, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  technological protection ...
\par and Sony BMG Music Entertainment, 116\endash 117
\par for subscription-based databases, 97
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 disabled or visually impaired negatively affected by copyright. }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See under:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  access to knowledge
\par distance learning courses, 89, 95\endash 98
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 broadcast and online programmes (copyright hurdles), 99
\par Sub-Saharan Africa, 99\endash 100
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 DMCA liabilities, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}
{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  Digital Millennium Copyright Act (US)
\par Dominican Republic, 92
\par dossier, defined, 4
\par doubting copyright, reasons for, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  resistance to copyright
\par downloading and reproducing files. }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See under:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  databases ...; }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 and see: }{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
music files ...
\par Dramatic, Artistic and Literary Rights Organisation (South Africa), DALRO, 41, 44, 112\endash 114
\par duration of copyright
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 author + 14 years, 13
\par author + 50 years, 40, 92
\par author + 70 years, 40, 91\endash 92
\par author + 99 years, 92
\par author + 100 years, 49, 50, 92, 186
\par cost estimates of term extension, 94
\par defined, 182
\par extended (term extension), 8, 40, 92, 141n, 186
\par legal basics of copyright term question, 92\endash 93
\par multinationals as main beneficiaries of, 93\endash 94
\par resistance to extension of term, 93
\par as tax on readers, 93
\par world average for duration, 186
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
East Africa, the Masai tradition of storytelling as heritage authorship, 58
\par economic rights of copyright owner
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 defined, 182
\par limited by fair use exclusions, 182\endash 183
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 economics of copyright 'piracy', statistics on, 75\endash 76
\par economics of global copyright, 29\endash 51, 79. }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See also}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  capital flow; }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 and:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
 cultural goods & world trade
\par }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 The Economist}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  (London), on reduction of copyright terms, 13, 17
\par Ecuador, 92
\par educational materials, accessibility and reproduction of, 11, 73, 85, 89, 98, 117, 131, 139, 178\endash 179
\par e-journal subscriptions, databases, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  databases, e\endash journal subscriptions
\par El Salvador, 92
\par Electronic Frontier Foundation, 18, 117, 122
\par Electronic Information for Libraries, eIFL.net, 107
\par electronic rights management systems, ERMS, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  digital rights management systems
\par electronic theses and dissertations, repositories for, 173
\par Elsevier Group, 109
\par essentialist approach (stasis in traditional knowledge), avoidance of, 67\endash 68
\par Ethiopia, 96, 108
\par European Communities on the enforcement of intellectual property rights, 71
\par European languages, privileging of, 134
\par exchange of technical information, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  technology transfer
\par exchange value }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 vs.}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  use value, 70
\par exemption, latitude, and the concept of 'fair use', }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  fair use/fair dealing ...
\par exhaustion of rights of copyright owner (Principle of First Sale), defined, 182
\par 
\par Fair Trade Commission (Korea), 124
\par fair use/fair dealing (copyright exemptions), 7, 19, 39, 91, 98, 105, 108, 111, 137\endash 139
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 and Berne Convention provisions, 137
\par defined, 182\endash 183
\par denied in Digital Millennium Copyright Act, 38
\par northern standard misapplied to global South, 138\endash 139
\par in West Africa, 108
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis (US), 15\endash 16
\par fees and payments, license, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  reprographic rights organisations
\par fees waived, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  fair use/fair dealing (copyright exemptions)
\par FLOSS movement (free/libre and open-source software), 119\endash 121
\par flow of information, transfer and distribution of knowledge, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  knowledge transfer
\par folklore and oral traditions, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  traditional knowledge
\par Force Foundation, 130
\par Foresight Institute (Foresight Nanotech Institute), 165
\par France, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 droit moral}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  protected by copyright, 54
\par free and open source software movements, 117, 119, 121\endash 125, 157, 164\endash 167, 169n, 174, 184
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 copyleft approach, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:
}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  copyleft movement
\par GPL approach, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  General Public License
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Free Curricula Centre, 99
\par free speech
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 dependent on full disclosure, access to databases, 12
\par threats to, copy and content protection as, 18
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 free trade agreements, 8, 9, 30, 34, 36\endash 41, 38n, 93, 156, 186

\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 requiring copyright duration of author + 100 years, 186
\par  (}{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See also}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  TRIPS Agreement)
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Free Trade of the Americas Agreement, FTAA, 155, 156
\par French-speaking West Africa, 108
\par 
\par GATT, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
\par Gene Campaign (Indian advocacy group), 154
\par General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1947, summarized, 183
\par General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade 1994
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Article 1 on Most Favoured Nation principle, 184
\par Article 3 on musical work, 184
\par and Marrakesh Protocol to GATT 1994, 183
\par precursor agency to World Trade Organization, 34, 81
\par summarized, 183
\par and Uruguay Round agreements, 183
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 General Public License (GPL free software license)
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 GNU GPL, 121, 165
\par GNU/Linux operating system, 166
\par resists copyright from within, 147
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 genetically modified organisms (GMOs), activists against, 156
\par Ghana, 92, 96, 129
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 book prices in, 44
\par performing arts in, multiple authorship of, 59n
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 global North (developed countries)
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 activists in (those critiquing copyright laws), 10
\par and copyright problems, 4
\par economic conditions and trade-related IP rights, 30\endash 44
\par exporters of information capital as monopoly rent, 29
\par one-way flow of knowledge, to South, 89\endash 90, 143, 153, 164
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 global South (developing countries)
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 access to knowledge, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  access to knowledge ...
\par authorship traditions based on common heritage, 56\endash 64
\par barriers to use of copyrighted materials in, 89\endash 145
\par copyright as western idea being imposed on, 10, 49\endash 50, 52
\par defined, 4
\par as importers of information capital as monopoly rent, 29
\par national treatment concept detrimental to, 49\endash 50
\par and net outflow of capital, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  capital flow
\par protection of local cultures, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  traditional knowledge
\par resistance to global copyright system, 147\endash 175
\par and shortage of books in libraries, 12
\par special and differential treatment of, 185
\par traditional knowledge in, See: traditional knowledge
\par and UNCTAD (development friendly integration), 186
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 globalisation
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 capital flow from periphery to the centre, 29\endash 51
\par as copyright-protected single culture, 4
\par imposition of a global intellectual property-oriented policy, 35, 52, 178
\par and western cultural conglomerates, 79, 153
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 group rights, 70, 158, 159
\par 
\par Haiti, 149
\par harmonisation of IP rules
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 resistance to, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{
\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  resistance to harmonisation of IP rules
\par and TRIPS Agreement, 17, 35\endash 37
\par to US standards, 30
\par WIPO's role in promoting, 81\endash 87
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Havana Charter, 183
\par Higher Education Copying Accord (United Kingdom), HECA, 43n
\par history of copyright conventions and assumptions, 7\endash 8, 94, 139, 148\endash 153
\par 
\par ideology of global copyright, 52\endash 88, 90
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 A2K reform efforts tied to Northern values and assumptions, 163
\endash 164
\par advantages and benefits alleged, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  copyright incentives
\par assumptions behind copyright paradigm, 8, 9, 52\endash 56, 89, 129, 133, 139, 148\endash 153, 163, 168, 178
\par central place of individual author rights & prerogatives, 54
\par copyright as a form of protectionism, 15
\par critique of, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  New World Information and Communication Order
\par as cultural imperialism, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  cultural imperialism
\par economic incentive of copyright, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  copyright incentives
\par and economics of copyright 'piracy', 75
\par equal treatment (foreign and domestic), }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  national treatment
\par fair use, 7, 182\endash 183
\par influence of Creative Commons licenses on, 168
\par information policy of US, 12, 29\endash 30, 34\endash 41, 37, 142\endash 144, 178
\par privatisation, 8\endash 27, 52
\par satire of, 175
\par as western idea imposed on global South, 10, 52
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
IFRRO, See: International Federation of Reproduction Rights Organisations
\par illiteracy and copyright laws, 4
\par incentives to create, spurs to innovation, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  copyright incentives (alleged) ...
\par India, 124, 127, 135
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 benefits and problems of 'piracy' in, 170
\par book 'piracy' in, 73
\par 'copy shop' raid, Mumbai, 73
\par pirated software in, 75\endash 76
\par resistance to TRIPS, 8
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 indigenous peoples, heritage-based traditional knowledge systems, }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  traditional knowledge
\par Indonesia, 85
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 book 'piracy' in, 73
\par customary law does not accommodate IP law nor the concept of intangible goods, 61
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 inefficiency argument (reformist writings on IP), 15
\par information activists, 3, 8, 10, 87, 123n, 147, 148
\par information age, 7
\par information and its technology as a commodity, concept of, 29
\par information capital, control of access to, 13
\par }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Information in the nonaligned countries}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  (Tunis, 1976), international symposium report, 152\endash 153
\par information policy of the United States, 12, 34\endash 41
\par infringement of copyright
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 defined as unauthorized use of protected works, 183
\par financial loss from (authors }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 vs.}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  corporations), 75
\par format conversion or transcription as, 106, 128\endash 133
\par infringement defined, 183
\par as injury, 54
\par by library users, 102\endash 103
\par as 'piracy', definition, 184
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
institutional repositories (open Web-based archives of scholarly material), 173\endash 174
\par intellectual property rights
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 advantages and benefits of, alleged, 8, 15\endash 17, 31, 44, 46

\par alien concept in traditional cultures with shared authorship, 56\endash 64, 69\endash 70
\par alternatives to international dimensions of IP, 147\endash 175
\par assumptions within the dominant IP discourse, 11, 16, 53\endash 76, 67\endash 69, 133\endash 134, 141\endash 145, 168
\par as basic, justified in John Locke's theory of natural law, 53\endash 54
\par capital flow attributed to, 46\endash 47
\par commodification of (creative work dissociated from its producer), 55, 67
\par commodification of knowledge, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  traditional knowledge
\par and corporate rights holders, 23\endash 24, 27
\par Declaration of Shamans on (2001), 159
\par digital 'piracy', unsubstantiated data on, 33\endash 34
\par disputed, subject to litigation, 25\endash 26
\par epicentres of IP law: Brussels, Geneva, New York, Washington (DC), 55
\par expansion of, 8, 33, 83
\par gains (annual capital outflow) of US from cultural products, 32\endash 33
\par global IP-oriented policy and enforcement as an imposition, 35\endash 37, 52
\par harmonisation of local rules to global, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  harmonisation ...
\par as incentive or deterrent to creativity and inventiveness, 11, 13\endash 16, 19, 82\endash 83, 115, 160
\par and investment in developing countries, 47
\par layers of IP protection additional to copyright, 104
\par license fees, payments, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  reprographic rights organisations
\par monopolisation of IP rights, 19\endash 27, 90
\par payments for IP rights, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  reprographic rights organisations
\par presumed causal relationship with socioeconomic development, 16\endash 17
\par and privatising of a common cultural heritage, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  privatisation
\par proprietary values and the western property model, 71
\par protection shifted in favour of commercial rights holders, 17
\par regulated by payment of rent, 29
\par restrict cultural diversity and exchange, 21\endash 22
\par rigorous enforcement in United States, 30
\par and software, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  proprietary software
\par as trade-related, 30
\par and traditional knowledge, traditional music, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  traditional ...
\par and TRIPS Agreement (summary), 185\endash 186
\par World Intellectual Property Organization role in promotion of, 80\endash 81
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems. }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See under:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  UNESCO
\par International Confederation of Societies of Authors and Composers, CISAC, 44
\par international crisis of copyright (1960s), 3, 89, 139, 152
\par International Federation of Library Associations, 103
\par International Federation of Reproduction Rights Organisations, 42
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 on benefits of their services, 44, 45
\par IFRRO described, 183
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 International Information Order, New, }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  New World Information and Communication Order
\par International Intellectual Property Alliance, 33
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 estimated levels of copyright 'piracy' , 34
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 International Publishers Association. Congress (25th, 1996), 42

\par International Seminar on Open Access for Developing Countries (Salvador, Brasil, 2005), 171
\par International Trade Organization (Proposed), as sister institution to World Bank and IMF, 183
\par Internet
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 barriers to Internet access in global South, 116\endash 119
\par copyright tollgates and flawed digital rights management systems, 116\endash 118
\par Google Scholar, conditional access in, 118
\par library access, use and storage of downloaded text in proprietary format, 105\endash 106, 118
\par and World Intellectual Property Organization Copyright Treaty, 187
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Internet service providers and copyright infringement issues, 39

\par IP Justice (advocacy group), 87
\par Iran, 118
\par Italy, 4
\par 
\par Jamaica, reprographic rights, 43
\par Jamaican Copyright Licensing Agency, JAMCOPY, 43
\par Japan, 149
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
copyright law as a foreign concept (cultural differences regarding IP rights), 60
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Jordan free trade agreement on domestic patents, 38
\par journals
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 academic and scientific, }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  academic and scientific journals
\par open access, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  open access journals
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Kenya, 95, 97, 116
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 access to Internet, 10
\par Copyright Act, fair use exemption, 98
\par reprographic rights, 43
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 knowledge, commodification of, 45, 105
\par knowledge, traditional, in global South (based on common heritage), }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  traditional knowledge
\par knowledge transfer, distribution
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 barriers to use of copyrighted materials, 89\endash 145
\par effect of fees and license rules of academic journals on, 105
\par more open paradigm for, 41
\par one-way flow of knowledge, North to South, 90, 143
\par unrestricted free flow of information, 41, 90, 142, 171
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Korea, 124
\par 
\par language of copyright reform efforts, A2K treaty language, 'pro-owner' legal narratives, 163
\par language of intellectual property appropriated by indigenous groups, 69, 148
\par language of open societies, 157, 172n
\par language of 'piracy' and 'infringement' applied to reproduced works, 8, 72, 128, 184
\par language of property rights and status quo, 11, 53\endash 76, 67\endash 70, 133\endash 134, 145, 148, 168, 177
\par languages, European (privileging of European languages), 134\endash 136
\par languages, non-dominant, and translation/transcription issues, 89, 97, 99, 132\endash 136, 140
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 'adaptation' as translation, 181
\par translation, defined, 185
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
Latin American and Caribbean Center on Health Sciences Information, 171
\par Lebanon, 124\endash 125
\par Liberia, 149
\par libraries
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 academic and scientific journals, }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  academic and scientific journals
\par access restrictions, fees, on use of databases, 104
\par and booksellers, an uneasy symbiosis, 101
\par costs due to copyright compliance, 19, 85, 90, 100, 105\endash 106, 118
\par digital content provider restrictions on resource sharing as disincentive to enquiry, 19
\par and electronic publishing, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  databases, e\endash journal subscriptions
\par and interlibrary loan, 18
\par open access journals and open archiving initiatives, 171\endash 174
\par photocopying in, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  photocopying ...
\par and public lending rights (of authors), 100\endash 102
\par services and efficiency hindered by copyright and IP rights, 100\endash 108
\par and shortage of books in global South, 12
\par subscription-based databases, e-journals, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  databases, e\endash journal subscriptions
\par user costs for commercial document delivery, 19
\par and vendor content management of digital material, 12, 104
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 library consortia, networks, 18, 105\endash 107
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 negotiating vendor licenses on fair terms, 106\endash 107
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 license agreements
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 'all rights reserved' }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
vs.}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  'some rights reserved' and degree of access, 168
\par alternative models for information sharing, 107, 119, 147, 157, 161\endash 164, 167\endash 174, 179, 181
\par blanket (educational institutions and RROs), 43, 91, 105, 113\endash 114
\par Creative Commons licenses/licensing, 119, 158n, 162, 167\endash 170, 179
\par a library consortial model (fair terms for access and use), 107
\par transactional (per-copy cost-basis), 112\endash 114
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 licenses, vendor, 12, 107
\par licensing of copyright, defined, 183
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  (}{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See also}{
\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  assignment of copyright)
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Linux (open source operating system), 76, 125, 165, 166, 166n
\par literary work, defined, 183
\par 
\par Madagascar, 109
\par Malawi, 139
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 reprographic rights, 43
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Malaysia
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 'copy shop' raids, 73
\par university on-campus copying of textbooks, 73
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Maldives, 109
\par }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Many voices, one world}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  (1980), UNESCO report, 153
\par Marrakech Agreement creates the World Trade Organisation, 184, 187
\par Marrakesh Protocol to GATT 1994, 183
\par Mauritius, 109
\par McBride Commission. }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See under:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  UNESCO
\par media conglomerates, control of content and channels of distribution, 23, 26\endash 27, 64, 153
\par media conglomerates, effect of consolidation and takeovers on cultural and scholarly production, 26, 64
\par M\'e9xico, 93, 123, 139
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 book 'piracy' in, 73
\par copyright duration in, 49, 50, 92
\par pirate versions of CDs and videos, 30
\par reprographic rights, 43
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Microsoft, 75\endash 76, 120\endash 121, 123\endash 126, 163\endash 
166, 178
\par Microsoft Partners in Learning (global iniciative), 165
\par Middle East, 'piracy' in (estimate for losses by Northern IP rights-holders), 33
\par Millennium Development Goals (United Nations), 179
\par MIT OpenCourseWare project, 119
\par model licensing agreement (fair terms for access and use), 107
\par models for information sharing, alternative, 107, 119, 147, 170\endash 174
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 A2K (Access to Knowledge Treaty Group), 157, 161\endash 164
\par Creative Commons approach, 119, 157, 162, 167\endash 170, 179, 181
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 moral philos
ophy, consequences of information flow, North to South, from the viewpoint of, 90n
\par moral rights (of authors)
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 defined, 184
\par }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 droit d'auteur}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  copyright system in West Africa, 108
\par }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 droit moral}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  (France), 54
\par right of author to be credited (right of attribution), 185
\par right of integrity of work and author's reputation, 185
\par translations requiring approval of author, 134
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Morocco free trade agreement on IP rights, 38
\par Most Favoured Nation principle defined, 184
\par Motion Picture Association of America, 33, 92
\par Mozambique, 92, 109, 179
\par MP3 downloads and decline in sales of record industry, 102n
\par multinational corporations, 3, 8, 26, 47, 53, 75, 81, 86, 107, 120, 125, 170\endash 173, 178
\par multinational corporations as beneficiaries of copyright term extension, 93
\par multinational record companies, 53, 78, 86, 178
\par music and sound-based collecting societies. }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See under:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  reprographic rights organisations
\par music files, downloading of, 18, 33, 101\endash 102, 102n
\par music industry in Brazil: Canto Livre project, tecno-brega scene, 170\endash 171
\par musical work
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 defined, 184
\par marketing and promotion of, 22\endash 23
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 mutual aid and cultural sharing }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 vs.}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  proprietary values and IP laws, 71
\par mutual aid model, 71, 160\endash 161, 160n
\par 
\par Nashville in Africa project (World Bank), 85
\par National Commission on New Technological Uses of Copyrighted Works (US), 120
\par National Encounter of Paj\'e9s (Brazil, 1999), 155, 158
\par National Library of Uganda, 107\endash 108
\par National Research and Education Networks, NRENs (regional networks), 119
\par national RROs as enforcement agencies (and an artificial model for global South), 42\endash 45
\par national treatment concept, 9, 48\endash 51
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 defined, 184
\par and differential treatment, 49
\par provisions of the Berne Convention, 133
\par reproduces substantive inequality, 50
\par and RROs, 184\endash 185
\par and TRIPS Agreement, 185\endash 186
\par  (}{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See also}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  cultural goods and world trade)
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
negotiating power, using a business model to negotiate for better fees, licenses, terms, 78, 104, 106\endash 107, 113, 170
\par neighboring rights, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  performers and producers rights
\par New World Information and Communication Order, 147, 148, 152\endash 153, 153n
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 reactions of US, UK governments/media to NWICO, 153
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 New Zealand, 128, 154
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Maori cultural and intellectual heritage, 154
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Nicaragua, 92
\par Nigeria, 92, 135
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 reprographic rights, 43
\par Yoruba art, 55
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Nonaligned Movement, 152
\par northern (western) countries, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  global North (developed countries)
\par 
\par Oman, free trade agreement on IP rights, 38
\par one-way flow of copyrighted works from the North to users in the global South, 89\endash 90, 143, 153, 164
\par open access concept, 171\endash 172, 174
\par open access journal article processing fees (pre-print, post-print), 173, 173n
\par open access journals and open archiving initiatives, 171\endash 174
\par open content licensing terms, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  Creative Commons
\par open courseware (MIT project), 119
\par Open Society Institute, 162n, 173
\par open source software
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 concept, 165, 167n
\par as defined by Open Source Initiative, 184
\par movement, 117, 119, 121\endash 125, 157, 164\endash 167, 169n, 174, 184
\par standards, open and compatible, 125
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 oral traditions and folklore, }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  traditional knowledge
\par originality concept and diffuse authorship: the issue of traditional or shared knowledge, 56\endash 64, 66
\par originality defined for purpose of copyright, 185
\par Oxford University Press, 140
\par 
\par Pakistan
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 book 'piracy' in, 73
\par confiscations of Pakistani DVDs in the UK, 72
\par 'copy shop' raids, 73
\par traditional knowledge (authorship) revealed in Peshawar storytelling, 57
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Pan American Health Organization, 171
\par Paraguay, 92, 156
\par Paris Convention (Protection of Industrial Property), and TRIPS Agreement, 186
\par Partners in Learning (Microsoft global iniciative), 165
\par payments attributable to IP licenses and fees, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  reprographic rights organisations
\par PEN Translation Prize, 136
\par performers and producers rights, defined, 184
\par Performing Right Society (UK), 77
\par Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues (United Nations), 154
\par Peru, 92
\par Peshawar (Pakistan), traditional knowledge in, 57
\par Philippines, 139
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 book 'piracy' in, 73
\par 'copy shop' raids, 73
\par 'pirated' software in, 126
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 photocopying charges in Nairobi (Kenya), 98n
\par photocopying era of RROs, 45
\par photocopying, library-related, 34, 44, 102, 105, 106, 115
\par 'piracy' of works
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 criminalisation of copying in the global South, 71\endash 76
\par defined, 71\endash 72, 184
\par intellectual property laws as a form of 'piracy' from 'heritage of mankind', 148
\par 'lost sales' argument of publishers, 19, 30, 33, 106
\par in music recording industry (file sharing), 30
\par software, 75, 125\endash 127
\par 'top ten' countries for book 'piracy', 73
\par in the United States (19th century), 7
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 politics of global copyright, 147\endash 175
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 'piracy' as a kind of political statement, 76
\par resistance to copyright, IP rules, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  resistance to ...
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\lang2070\langfe1033\langnp2070\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
Popular PC Project (Brasil: computador popular), 124
\par }{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 preferential treatment of intellectual property within member states of GATT (MFN restriction), 184
\par presumptions about copyright, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  assumptions about the copyright paradigm ...
\par principle of assimilation, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  national treatment concept
\par Principle of First Sale, See: Exhaustion of Rights
\par Priority Watch List (Special 301 Report on intellectual property protection), 34
\par privatisation
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 of cultural life, resistance to, 157\endash 158
\par of everything cultural (commodification of culture), 70
\par of humanity's common cultural heritage, 11\endash 27
\par ideological role of, 20
\par imposition of, 8\endash 27, 52, 76\endash 77
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 privileging of European languages, 134\endash 136
\par profit motive, 15
\par proprietary interests, reversion to public domain, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  public domain
\par proprietary software, 35, 119\endash 127, 164\endash 166
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 open source and free software offer substantial advantages over, 166

\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 proprietary standards (closed standards), 84, 121, 125
\par proprietary values and IP laws }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 vs.}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  mutual aid and cultural sharing, 71
\par proprietary values, need for deconstruction of, 71
\par protection of authors' rights, 54, 150, 156n
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 in Berne Convention, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  Berne Convention
\par moral rights of authors, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  moral rights
\par Venezuela initiative on rights of authors, 155\endash 156
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
protection of literary and artistic works, the Berne Convention and, 181, 186
\par protection of traditional/indigenous knowledge, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  traditional knowledge
\par public discourse and international exchange of ideas and opinions, restricted by IP rights, 21\endash 22
\par public domain
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 in Argentina, rights revert to state, 184
\par benefits of, 9
\par copyduty on IP proposed to sustain public domain, 41
\par defined, 184
\par licensing schemes, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  Creative Commons
\par privatisation of, 52
\par proprietary works reverting to, 40, 184
\par theory, benefits of, 9
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 public lending rights (of authors), 100\endash 102
\par Publishers' Association of South Africa, 113
\par 
\par Radio Language Arts Programme (Kenya), 96
\par Random House Colombia (publisher), 107
\par rap music and the chilling effect of potential IP rights litigation, 19
\par recommendations for alternatives over proprietary software, 164\endash 167
\par recommendations for alternatives to copyright in the global South, 159\endash 162
\par recommendations/strategies to protect cultural heritage and traditional knowledge, 69\endash 71
\par Recording Industry Association of America, 33
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 description, 185
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 recording industry (record companies), US trade group defined, 185

\par regional trade agreements, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  free trade agreements
\par Reid-Elsevier, 140
\par Reproduction Rights Organisation of Kenya, KOPIKEN, 42, 43
\par Reproduction Rights Organisation of Zimbabwe, ZIMCOPY, 41, 43
\par Reprographic Rights Organisation of Nigeria, REPRONIG, 43
\par reprographic rights organisations
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Arab countries disregard for IP law or royalty payments, 61\endash 
63
\par blanket license schemes of RROs, 43, 43n, 105, 113, 114
\par collecting data about capital flows in intellectual property, 30
\par copyright clearance, steep transaction costs involved in, 45
\par disparity in North/South revenue flow, 44
\par as fee collecting societies, agents of rights holders, 184\endash 185
\par license fees collected and distributed, 30, 31, 41\endash 42, 44\endash 47
\par license fees collected and distributed in South Africa, 46\endash 47
\par low collection activity and high transaction cost in South, 43, 113
\par music and sound-based collecting societies, 45\endash 47, 50, 77, 85
\par operating with minimum personnel, with little public presence, 4
\par role of RROs in global South countries, 41\endash 45
\par royalty revenues compared with photocopying costs, 44
\par RRO model as inappropriate for developing world, 42\endash 45
\par site licensing by institution, 113
\par South Africa (DALRO), 42\endash 44, 112\endash 114
\par transaction costs, fees, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  transaction costs
\par and transactional licenses, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  licenses, transactional ...
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 requirements for copyright defined, 185
\par resistance to copyright, 'piracy' as, 76
\par resistance to copyright from within (General Public License concept), 147
\par resistance to copyright ideology by using satire, parody and art, 175
\par resistance to copyright term extension, 93
\par resistance to global copyright system, 147\endash 175
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 history of, 148\endash 153
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 resistance to harmonisation of IP rules in FTA forums, 30
\par resistance to IP model by indigenous groups, 67
\par resistance to language and rhetoric used by proprietary IP rights interests, 174
\par resistance to neo-liberal trade harmonisation, 147
\par resistance to proprietary software packages, 164\endash 167
\par resistance to the privatisation of cultural life, 157\endash 158
\par resistance to TRIPS Agreement, 8, 147, 157, 175
\par resistance to WIPO programmes and agenda, 86\endash 87, 161\endash 162
\par restrictions, copyright, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  copyright restrictions
\par reward and remuneration, earnings discrepancies between western and non-western cultures, 55\endash 56, 77\endash 79
\par rhetoric of copyright, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  language of property rights and status quo
\par RIAA, See: Recording Industry Association of America
\par right of attribution (crediting), defined as moral right of author, 185
\par right of integrity (prejudicial modification of work), defined, 185
\par right to education (Article 26, Universal Declaration on Human Rights), 74
\par rights holders
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 agents, RRO licenses, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  reprographic rights organisations
\par definition of, 14n
\par IFRRO consortium defined, 183
\par multinational corporations benefit from copyright term extension, 93\endash 94
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 roMEO Project study (on self-archiving), 174
\par Royal National Institute for the Blind (UK), 127, 129
\par royalties from intellectual properties, 25
\par royalty payments to authors not a precondition of creativity, 63
\par Rural Foundation Advancement International, RAFI, 154
\par 
\par S&D principle, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  special and differential treatment
\par Salvador Declaration on Open Access: The Developing World Perspective (2005), 171
\par sanctions against foreign unfair trade practices (US statute), }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  Section 301 action
\par satire and art, used in resistance to dominant copyright ideology, 175
\par Saudi Arabia, 178
\par scholarly communication and scientific method, threats to, 18\endash 19
\par scholarly electronic publishing, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  databases ...; }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 and:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
 open access journals ...
\par scientific, technical and medical publishing, STM, 173
\par Section 301 action, defined, 185
\par self-archiving of research output, 173
\par Senegal, musicians earnings and IP rights, 24
\par Seychelles, 109
\par sharing, non-commodified, as solution to intellectual property exclusions, 70, 147, 168
\par sharing knowledge, obligation to, 135
\par sharing of technical information, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  technology transfer
\par Sight Savers International, 129
\par Singapore, 92
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 free trade agreement on IP rights, 38
\par reprographic rights, 43
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 single culture (globalisation), 4
\par social facilitation research, potential application in field of IP discourse, 16
\par }{\f56\fs20\lang2070\langfe1033\langnp2070\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Sociedad de Derechos Literarios (Chile), SADEL, 43
\par Soci\'e9t\'e9 des auteurs, compositeurs et editeurs de musique au Liban, SACEM, 63\endash 64
\par }{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 software and hardware upgrades, expense of, 123, 165, 178
\par software, free and open source, 117, 119, 121\endash 125, 157, 164\endash 167
\par software 'piracy', 75, 125\endash 127
\par software, proprietary, 35, 119\endash 127, 164\endash 166
\par Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998 (US), 40, 92, 141n
\par Sony BMG Music Entertainment, 116\endash 117
\par source code, 123, 165, 184
\par south, global, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  global South (developing countries)
\par South Africa, 92, 108, 177
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 access to educational materials for visually impaired persons, 131

\par alleged failure to enforce Northern standards of IP protection, 34
\par Copyright Act (1978), 111
\par copyright-related payments, amounts collected by DALRO, 46\endash 47
\par direct action against entities supporting strong IP rights, 174
\par estimated levels of copyright 'piracy' in, 34
\par languages of, 135
\par photocopied texts and reprographic rights schemes, 44, 98, 138
\par Publishers' Association of South Africa, 113
\par RRO (reprographic rights organisation), DALRO as an, 41, 44, 112\endash 114
\par rural learning centres, impact of copyright law and photocopying rules on, 109\endash 111
\par Zulu musician and IP rights, 25
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 South African Site Licensing Initiative, SASLI, 113
\par South Korea, and university on-campus copying of textbooks, 73
\par Spain, and Berne Convention, 91
\par special and differential treatment regarding compliance, principle of, 130n, 136, 140, 141, 163
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 defined, 185
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 standards, open and compatible computer software, }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  open source software
\par standards of fair use (northern) misapplied to global South, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  fair use/fair dealing ...
\par Statute of Anne (Gt. Brit., 1710), 'An act for the encouragement of learning', 11, 94
\par Stockholm Protocol (1967), and developing countries, 150n, 151, 152
\par strategies to protect cultural heritage and traditional knowledge, 69\endash 71
\par Strathmore University, 96
\par Syria, 118
\par 
\par Taiwan
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 'copy shop' raids, 73
\par protests in Taipei (2002) against US pressures for copyright extension, 93
\par tribal songs unprotected (not 'original'), 66
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Tanzania, 49, 96
\par Task Force on National Information Policy (US), 12
\par 'technical assistance' programmes to develop national IP programs, 81\endash 84
\par technical conferences in US, trend of moving overseas (DMCA liability), 18
\par technical information exchange, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  technology transfer
\par technological lock on copy protected digital media, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  circumvention technology
\par technological protection measures
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 censoring of discussions on TPM methodology, 18
\par and digital rights management systems, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  digital rights...
\par digital works, 12, 104, 185
\par publisher use of TPM and DRM technology to collect fees, 45
\par TPM defined, 185
\par  (}{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See also}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  circumvention of technological protection)
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 technology transfer, 29, 47, 76, 123, 126, 159, 165
\par textbook market in global South, commercial, 44, 96, 97, 140
\par textbooks, free, 99, 110, 157n
\par Thailand, book 'piracy' in, 73
\par The Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  TRIPS Agreement
\par theft, cultural, 65, 69, 69n, 154, 155, 158\endash 159
\par Third World countries, 17n, 144, 150, 151
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 and choice of membership in Berne Convention }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 vs.}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  Universal CC, 150
\par critique of NWICO (information and communication order), 153
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
trade disputes, international, and the role of World Trade Organization, 187
\par trade secret laws, 37n, 47, 119\endash 121, 126, 186
\par traditional knowledge, 9, 26, 52\endash 53, 56\endash 71
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 commodification of, 67\endash 71
\par as common cultural heritage, 11\endash 27
\par considered as sacred, 158
\par and copyright protection, 59n, 65\endash 71
\par creative work and collective authorship threatened by TRIPS Agreement, 147
\par and the culture of sharing, 8
\par demands of indigenous leaders for protection of, 158\endash 159
\par 'heritage of mankind' claims (commodification of knowledge), 11\endash 27, 66, 70, 148
\par indigenous groups, resistance to IP model, 67, 69
\par oral storytelling, 66
\par oral tradition of indigenous peoples, 65
\par and public domain issues, 9
\par recommended strategies to protect, 69\endash 71
\par and TRIPS Agreement conflict with, 154
\par World Intellectual Property Organization interest in, 68
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 traditional music, 66\endash 67
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 African musicians and global copyright, 24
\par jazz musicians (US), 24
\par Senegal musicians, earnings of, 24
\par South African musicians, 25
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Trans-Atlantic Consumer Dialogue, 161
\par transaction costs
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 for copyright clearance and RRO activities, 43, 112\endash 
114, 131, 163
\par digital/electronic rights management systems and, 45, 113, 182, 187
\par as 'discouragement cost' (against copying), 131, 163
\par for document delivery, 19, 99, 115
\par of open access journals (processing fees), 172\endash 173
\par TRIPS Agreement compliance costs, 46
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 transaction licenses (per-copy cost-basis), }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  license agreements, transactional ...
\par transcription of copyrighted material into a different format (Braille, audio tape, etc.), 106, 128\endash 133
\par transfer of copyright, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  assignment of copyright; }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 and:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
 licensing of copyright
\par translation, defined, 185
\par translations, legal barriers to, 133\endash 136
\par translations and the Arab book market (royalty payment constraints), 64
\par translations and the South African book market (licensing constraints), 99
\par Treaty on Access to Knowledge (Proposed), 161\endash 162
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 draft treaty (2004), 161n
\par limited perspective on access needs, 163
\par possible non-compliance with Berne and TRIPS, 164
\par  (}{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See also}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  Access to Knowledge A2K treaty group)
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Trinidad and Tobago Reproduction Rights Organisation, TTRRO, 43

\par TRIPS Action Network, 154
\par TRIPS Agreement, 8, 98
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 aim of imposing a globally harmonised IP system, 17, 35\endash 37

\par Article 3 on musical work, 48n, 184
\par Article 4 on Most Favoured Nation principle, 184
\par Article 9 agreement with Berne Convention, 139
\par and Berne Convention ideology reflected in, 148\endash 149
\par birth, and subsequent exploitation by Northern copyright industries, 34\endash 36
\par claims of benefits, evaluating, 46
\par copyright compliance, high economic cost of, 46
\par described (summary), 185
\par exemptions/obligations of developing countries, 185
\par national treatment concept in, 48
\par and protection of computer programs, 120
\par protective standards as barriers to knowledge access, 3
\par resistance to, 10, 147, 154\endash 155
\par as a stage in further commodification of trade-related intellectual property, 54
\par technology transfer objectives of, 123
\par as threat to creative work and collective authorship of indigenous cultures, 147
\par and World Trade Organization, 148, 187
\par  (}{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See also}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  free trade agreements)
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 TRIPS Plus Agenda (higher requirements), 8, 30, 147
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 described (summary), 186
\par and economic inequalities, 8
\par intellectual property rights extended to life forms, 29
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Tunisia, 148
\par 
\par Uganda, 96, 107\endash 108
\par UNCTAD
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 described in summary, 186
\par report on relationship between IP rights and development, 16\endash 17
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 UNESCO
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 indicators and cultural statistics, 31\endash 32
\par International Commission for the Study of Communication Problems (McBride Commission), 153
\par sidelined from any role in copyright policy, 81
\par United States withdrawal from, 153
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 unfair trade practice, sanctions against (US statute), }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  Section 301 action
\par United Kingdom
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 
books available in accessible alternate formats, proportion of published, 129
\par British Copyright Council, 152
\par Copyright, Designs and Patents Act (1988), 128n, 133n, 138n
\par Copyright Licensing Agency, 43n
\par legislation allowing copying of copyrighted material for visually impaired, 106
\par Public Lending Right in, 101
\par purchasing power parity with global South countries, 122
\par Stockholm Protocol (1967), UK response to, 152
\par threats to free speech of copyright reformists, 18
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  UNCTAD
\par United Nations Millennium Summit (2000), 179
\par United States Constitution, on rights-holders monopoly }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 vs.}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  public benefit, 11
\par United States. International Trade Commission, on digital 'piracy' threat to IP, 3
\par United States. Senate. Committee on Foreign Relations, 12
\par Universal Copyright Convention, UCC
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 as alternative to Berne Convention, 150, 186
\par diminished importance of, 186
\par and Third World countries, 150
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 University of Nairobi, Faculty of Law Library, 98
\par University of South Africa, 96
\par University of Yaound\'e9, Medical Library, 108
\par Uruguay
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 opposing neo-liberal trade, 156
\par reprographic rights in, 43
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Uruguay Round agreements annexed to GATT (1994)
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 IP system as of 1994, 29
\par and the WTO Agreement, 183
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Uruguay Round negotiations, 1947-94, 186
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 and stricter protection of intellectual property, 12\endash 13

\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 U.S. Omnibus Trade Act of 1988, 
Section 301 (foreign unfair practices), }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  Section 301 action
\par US-based information/ideology offensive, 141\endash 145
\par 
\par vendor
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 of books, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{
\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  book market and booksellers
\par definition of, 14n
\par licenses, 12, 107
\par technical protection measures of use of digital content, 12, 104
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Venezuela iniciative on the rights of authors, 155\endash 156
\par }{\f56\fs20\lang2070\langfe1033\langnp2070\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Venezuela. Servicio Aut\'f3nomo de la Propiedad Intelectual (SAPI), 155
\par }{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Venezuelan alternative to Free Trade of the America's Agreement, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  Bolivarian Alternative
\par Venezuelan opposition to neo-liberal trade, 156
\par Vietnam, 122
\par visually impaired persons, 89, 106, 113, 127\endash 133, 141, 162\endash 163, 177
\par 
\par Walt Disney Company
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 extension of copyright protection, 27, 40
\par and intellectual property rights, 26
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 WCT (World Intellectual Property Organization Copyright Treaty), }{
\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  WIPO Copyright Treaty
\par William and Flora Hewlett Foundation, 119
\par WIPO Copyright Treaty
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Article 11 (legal remedies), 39
\par described (summary), 187
\par as less restrictive than Digital Millennium Copyright Act (US), 38
\par and protection of computer programs, 120
\par reform movement (A2K), 157, 161\endash 164
\par restricts alteration of electronic rights management systems, 187
\par and rights holders interests, 137
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 work(s), defined with respect to copyright law, 186
\par World Bank, 85
\par World Blind Union, 127, 129, 132
\par World Health Organization, 127, 171
\par World-Information City protest campaign using anti-copyright art (billboards, posters, etc.), 175
\par World Intellectual Property Organization
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 on benefits of WIPO services, 44, 45
\par Copyright Treaty, 1996, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  WIPO Copyright Treaty
\par described (summary), 187
\par Development Agenda, 86\endash 87, 161
\par and efforts to protect traditional knowledge, 68
\par General Course on Intellectual Property, 84
\par as indigenous peoples forum, 174
\par international treaties administered by WIPO, 187
\par liberalism, purported, 85\endash 86
\par objectives, role in spreading copyright system, 80\endash 81
\par resistance to its agenda, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  resistance to WIPO ...
\par role in developing national IP programs in Bahrain, 81\endash 83
\par role in imposing western IP model on global South, 30, 53, 81\endash 87
\par 'technical assistance' programmes, 83\endash 84
\par WIPO Online Forum, 85
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 World Social Forum, 123
\par World Summit on the Information Society, WSIS, 69
\par world trade and cultural statistics, }{\i\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 See:}{\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818  cultural goods and world trade
\par World Trade Organization
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 description, tasks, 187
\par influenced by colonial era language of Berne Convention, 148
\par and intellectual property rights protection, 185\endash 186
\par and resistance groups seeking changes to patent rights, 175
\par rules, exemptions from (special treatment), 141, 185
\par successor agency to GATT, 34
\par used to impose U.S. IP standards, 30
\par 
\par }\pard\plain \s162\ql \fi-650\li650\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin650\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 Zambia, technology funding, 10
\par Zimbabwe
\par }\pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 \f1\fs24\lang1033\langfe1033\cgrid\langnp1033\langfenp1033 {\f56\fs20\insrsid3948818\charrsid3948818 distance learning by electronic means, 96
\par reprographic rights in, 41, 43
\par \sect }\sectd \psz9\sbknone\linex0\linebetcol\endnhere\titlepg\sectlinegrid326\sectdefaultcl\sectrsid3948818\sftnbj \pard\plain \s163\ql \fi-650\li910\ri0\widctlpar\tqr\tx9360\faauto\rin0\lin910\itap0 
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\par }{\insrsid6751219 
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\b\fs40\insrsid6751219\charrsid549691 To receive one or more copies (maximum five) of this dossier in the post, contact the Copy/South group at: }{\field\fldedit{\*\fldinst {\b\fs40\ul\insrsid6751219\charrsid549691 
 HYPERLINK "mailto:contact@copysouth.org" }}{\fldrslt {\cs19\b\fs40\ul\insrsid6751219\charrsid549691 contact@copysouth.org}}}{\b\fs40\insrsid6751219\charrsid549691 . It is available for free either as a printed booklet or as a CD. Distribution is 
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\par }\pard \qj \li0\ri0\widctlpar\aspalpha\aspnum\faauto\adjustright\rin0\lin0\itap0\pararsid1311169 {\insrsid6751219\charrsid2429221 
\par }}